臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

研究背景：
自閉症疾患(autism spectrum disorder, ASD)為具有腦功能異常的神經發展障礙，執行功能的缺損被報告為自閉症患者的重要特徵之一，且被認為能解釋其主要核心症狀。過去關於自閉症執行功能的相關研究，不曾探討該族群能力如類群分佈與能力之異質性，且相關的神經影像學腦結構變異證據不足；真實生活情境執行功能表現分群之腦結構變異，與基礎執行功能及整體症狀間的關聯仍未明。
研究方法：
本研究招募了76位確診為自閉症的6-18歲的男性受試者，與相同性別與年齡範圍之72名正常發展者作為研究對象。透過收集171位相同年齡區段男性典型發展對照組(typically developing control, TDC)的執行功能行為評定量表（Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, BRIEF）之綜合評分來定義執行功能缺損(executive function deficit, EFD)標準，將自閉症受試者分為兩組：ASD+EFD組31名 (平均年齡 ± SD, 13.6±2.3 歲)及ASD-EFD組45名(平均年齡 ± SD, 13.0±2.6 歲)。所有受試者皆接受智力測驗與收集相關問卷資料，透過劍橋自動化神經心理測驗檢驗與執行功能缺損理論相關基礎功能之表現，選取之分測驗為：快速視覺訊息處理作業(Rapid Visual Information Processing, RVP)、劍橋河內塔測驗(Stockings of Cambridge, SOC)、內外向度轉換測驗(intra-dimension/extra-dimensional set-shifting performance, ID/ED)、空間工作記憶測驗(Spatial Working Memory, SWM)，並藉由主成分分析之特徵選取方法擷取神經心理學測驗之重要指標商數進行分析。透過以體素為基礎的形態計量學分析(Voxel Based Morphometry, VBM) 磁振造影高解析度的T1結構影像，得到腦統計圖像並以無閾值團簇增強法(Threshold-Free Cluster Enhancement, TFCE)進行處理，獲得腦局部灰質體積變異資訊。續以擷取腦統計圖內對比組合為顯著差異之局部灰質體積，將其與神經心理學測驗、社交反應量表(Social Responsiveness Scale, SRS)進行關聯性的分析與討論。
研究結果：
執行功能基礎能力之表現經過控制年齡、全量表智商後，發現SWM錯誤數在ASD兩組分別統計顯著的大於TDC。
腦影像學分析結果：透過無閾值團簇增強法發現有以下三種對比組合為顯著：ASD+EFD>ASD-EFD、ASD+EFD>TDC、以及ASD-EFD>TDC。ASD+EFD腦灰質局部變異位於社交認知功能、心智理論、及靜息態腦網路之預設模式網路(default mode network, DMN) 與警覺網路(salience network, SN) 的腦區； ASD-EFD與ASD+EFD比較時，其腦部樣態更接近TD；ASD兩組其顳葉與梭狀回灰質體積增加；局部灰質變異與執行功能基礎能力及症狀之關聯性： SWM與自閉症患者的眶額皮質(orbital frontal cortex, OFC)體積有顯著關聯性；自閉症顳中回(Middle temporal gyrus)灰質體積增加則減輕整體症狀嚴重度，卻也與SOC計畫思考時間延長有關。
結論：
自閉症整體執行功能行為表現的異質性源於大腦局部灰質的變異，這些變異與自閉症社交認知功能、心智理論、靜息態腦網路、及整體症狀有關。本研究提供證據支持自閉症具有執行功能的缺損，尤以空間工作記憶與灰質變異相關。

Background:
Deficits in executive functions are among the essential features and theories of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and may explain some behavioral phenotypes of ASD. Executive function (EF) heterogeneity within ASD has not been investigated yet to depict profiles from real-world performance to fundamental EFs. Moreover, the brain structural alteration contributing to executive dysfunction and clinical symptoms remains unclear.
Method:
We recruited 76 boys with ASD and 72 typically developing control (TDC) boys aged 6 -18 years old. According to the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) data of TDC, we defined executive function deficit (EFD) criteria. ASD youths were divided into 31 in ASD+ EFD and 45 in ASD- EFD. The Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB) examined fundamental EFs. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) with the Threshold-Free Cluster Enhancement Analysis (TFCE) algorithm was applied to structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data to find gray matter volume (GMV) alteration.
Results:
The TFCE results revealed that ASD+EFD showed gray matter alteration in regions related to social cognition, theory of mind (ToM), default mode network (DMN), and salience network (SN) as compared to others. The ASD-EFD group demonstrated a brain pattern more like TDC when compared with ASD+EFD. Increased GMV in the fusiform gyrus and temporal lobes was noted in both ASD+EFD and ASD-EFD. In addition, increased GMV of the orbital frontal cortex (OFC) was related to more SWM errors in ASD. The increased GMV of the middle temporal gyrus could alleviate symptom severity but was associated with prolonged thinking time in SOC.
Conclusion:
ASD youths have heterogeneous EF and are related to GM alterations located in regions of social cognition, ToM, resting-state networks. This study provides evidence to support the EF deficits, particularly spatial working memory, in ASD.

口試委員審定書 i
謝辭 ii
中文摘要 iii
英文摘要 vi
目錄 viii
圖目錄 xi
表目錄 xii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Executive Function in ASD 2
1.2 Neuroanatomical Alteration in ASD 3
1.3 Neural substrates for Executive Function in ASD 6
1.4 The rationale for this study 7
2 Methods 9
2.1 Participants and procedures 9
2.2 Measures 10
2.2.1 Instruments assessing ASD diagnosis and other psychiatric disorders 10
2.2.2 Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) 11
2.2.3 Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) 12
2.2.4 Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery (CANTAB) 13
2.3 Feature Selection of Neuropsychological Tests by Principal Components Analysis (PCA) 15
2.4 Structural MRI acquisition and processing 17
2.4.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 17
2.4.2 Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM) 17
2.5 Statistical analysis 18
2.5.1 Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM) 19
2.5.2 Threshold-Free Cluster Enhancement (TFCE) 20
2.5.3 The association analysis among regional gray matter volumes, Neuropsychological tests, and clinical measures 20
3 Results 22
3.1 Demographic and clinical characteristics 22
3.2 VBM analysis for regional neuroanatomical differences 24
ASD+EFD>ASD-EFD 25
ASD+EFD>TDC 25
ASD-EFD>TDC 26
3.3 Executive Functions assessed by CANTAB tasks 28
3.4 Association between regional GMV difference and CANTAB 31
3.5 Associations between altered regional GMV and symptoms severity 34
4 Discussion 36
4.1 Regional gray matter alterations in ASD 36
4.2 Executive function heterogeneity in ASD 42
4.3 Association between regional GMV alterations and EFs 43
4.4 Association between regional GMV alterations and symptoms severity 45
4.5 Strength and Limitation 46
5 Conclusion 48
6 Acknowledgments 49
Reference 50

Abell, F., Krams, M., Ashburner, J., Passingham, R., Friston, K., Frackowiak, R., . . . Frith, U. (1999). The neuroanatomy of autism: a voxel-based whole brain analysis of structural scans. Neuroreport, 10(8), 1647-1651. doi:10.1097/00001756-199906030-00005
Allen, G., & Courchesne, E. (2003). Differential effects of developmental cerebellar abnormality on cognitive and motor functions in the cerebellum: an fMRI study of autism. Am J Psychiatry, 160(2), 262-273. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.262
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (5th ed ed.). Arlinton, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Ashburner, J. (2007). A fast diffeomorphic image registration algorithm. NeuroImage, 38(1), 95-113. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.07.007
Ashburner, J., & Friston, K. J. (2000). Voxel-based morphometry--the methods. NeuroImage, 11(6 Pt 1), 805-821. doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0582
Aylward, E. H., Minshew, N. J., Field, K., Sparks, B. F., & Singh, N. (2002). Effects of age on brain volume and head circumference in autism. Neurology, 59(2), 175-183. doi:10.1212/wnl.59.2.175
Barendse, E. M., Hendriks, M. P., Jansen, J. F., Backes, W. H., Hofman, P. A., Thoonen, G., . . . Aldenkamp, A. P. (2013). Working memory deficits in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: neuropsychological and neuroimaging correlates. J Neurodev Disord, 5(1), 14. doi:10.1186/1866-1955-5-14
Battle, D. E. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Codas, 25(2), 191-192. doi:10.1590/s2317-17822013000200017
Bauman, M. L., & Kemper, T. L. (2005). Neuroanatomic observations of the brain in autism: a review and future directions. Int J Dev Neurosci, 23(2-3), 183-187. doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.09.006
Belmonte, M. K., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2003). Anatomic dissociation of selective and suppressive processes in visual attention. NeuroImage, 19(1), 180-189. doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00033-8
Bressler, S. L., & Menon, V. (2010). Large-scale brain networks in cognition: emerging methods and principles. Trends Cogn Sci, 14(6), 277-290. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.04.004
Cavanna, A. E., & Trimble, M. R. (2006). The precuneus: a review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates. Brain, 129(Pt 3), 564-583. doi:10.1093/brain/awl004
Chamberlain, S. R., Robbins, T. W., Winder-Rhodes, S., Müller, U., Sahakian, B. J., Blackwell, A. D., & Barnett, J. H. (2011). Translational approaches to frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using a computerized neuropsychological battery. Biol Psychiatry, 69(12), 1192-1203. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.019
Chen, H. I., Chien, Y. L., Liao, H. M., Chien, W. H., Chen, C. H., Chen, Y. C., & Gau, S. S. (2016). Dosage of copy number variation at 22q11.2 mediates changes in cognition, social function and brain structure in autism spectrum disorder. J Formos Med Assoc, 115(7), 577-582. doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2016.02.005
Chen, Y. L., Chen, W. J., Lin, K. C., Shen, L. J., & Gau, S. S. (2019). Prevalence of DSM-5 mental disorders in a nationally representative sample of children in Taiwan: methodology and main findings. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci, 30, 1-9.
Chen, Y. L., Shen, L. J., & Gau, S. S. (2017). The Mandarin version of the Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Epidemiological version for DSM-5 - A psychometric study. J Formos Med Assoc, 116(9), 671-678. doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2017.06.013
Constantino, J. N. (2013). Social Responsiveness Scale. In F. R. Volkmar (Ed.), Encyclopedia of autism spectrum disorders (pp. 2919-2929). New York, NY: Springer New York.
Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2012). Social responsiveness scale: SRS-2: Western Psychological Services Torrance, CA.
Courchesne, E., Carper, R., & Akshoomoff, N. (2003). Evidence of brain overgrowth in the first year of life in autism. JAMA, 290(3), 337-344. doi:10.1001/jama.290.3.337
Courchesne, E., Pierce, K., Schumann, C. M., Redcay, E., Buckwalter, J. A., Kennedy, D. P., & Morgan, J. (2007). Mapping early brain development in autism. Neuron, 56(2), 399-413. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.016
Critchley, H. D., Daly, E. M., Bullmore, E. T., Williams, S. C., Van Amelsvoort, T., Robertson, D. M., . . . Murphy, D. G. (2000). The functional neuroanatomy of social behaviour: changes in cerebral blood flow when people with autistic disorder process facial expressions. Brain, 123 ( Pt 11), 2203-2212. doi:10.1093/brain/123.11.2203
de Vries, M., & Geurts, H. (2015). Influence of Autism Traits and Executive Functioning on Quality of Life in Children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord, 45(9), 2734-2743. doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2438-1
Demetriou, E. A., Lampit, A., Quintana, D. S., Naismith, S. L., Song, Y. J. C., Pye, J. E., . . . Guastella, A. J. (2018). Autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of executive function. Mol Psychiatry, 23(5), 1198-1204. doi:10.1038/mp.2017.75
Gallagher, H. L., Happé, F., Brunswick, N., Fletcher, P. C., Frith, U., & Frith, C. D. (2000). Reading the mind in cartoons and stories: an fMRI study of 'theory of mind' in verbal and nonverbal tasks. Neuropsychologia, 38(1), 11-21. doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(99)00053-6
Gardiner, E., Hutchison, S. M., Müller, U., Kerns, K. A., & Iarocci, G. (2017). Assessment of executive function in young children with and without ASD using parent ratings and computerized tasks of executive function. Clin Neuropsychol, 31(8), 1283-1305. doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1290139
Gau, S. S., Chiu, C. D., Shang, C. Y., Cheng, A. T., & Soong, W. T. (2009). Executive function in adolescence among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Taiwan. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 30(6), 525-534. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181c21c97
Gau, S. S., Chong, M. Y., Chen, T. H., & Cheng, A. T. (2005). A 3-year panel study of mental disorders among adolescents in Taiwan. Am J Psychiatry, 162(7), 1344-1350. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1344
Gau, S. S., Chou, M. C., Lee, J. C., Wong, C. C., Chou, W. J., Chen, M. F., . . . Wu, Y. Y. (2010). Behavioral problems and parenting style among Taiwanese children with autism and their siblings. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 64(1), 70-78. doi:PCN2034 [pii]
10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.02034.x
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2000). Behavior rating inventory of executive function: BRIEF: Psychological Assessment Resources Odessa, FL.
Happé, F., Ehlers, S., Fletcher, P., Frith, U., Johansson, M., Gillberg, C., . . . Frith, C. (1996). 'Theory of mind' in the brain. Evidence from a PET scan study of Asperger syndrome. Neuroreport, 8(1), 197-201. doi:10.1097/00001756-199612200-00040
Hardan, A. Y., Muddasani, S., Vemulapalli, M., Keshavan, M. S., & Minshew, N. J. (2006). An MRI study of increased cortical thickness in autism. Am J Psychiatry, 163(7), 1290-1292. doi:10.1176/ajp.2006.163.7.1290
Hazlett, H. C., Poe, M., Gerig, G., Smith, R. G., Provenzale, J., Ross, A., . . . Piven, J. (2005). Magnetic resonance imaging and head circumference study of brain size in autism: birth through age 2 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 62(12), 1366-1376. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.12.1366
Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends Cogn Sci, 8(1), 26-32.
Hollocks, M. J., Jones, C. R., Pickles, A., Baird, G., Happé, F., Charman, T., & Simonoff, E. (2014). The association between social cognition and executive functioning and symptoms of anxiety and depression in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res, 7(2), 216-228. doi:10.1002/aur.1361
Just, M. A., Cherkassky, V. L., Keller, T. A., & Minshew, N. J. (2004). Cortical activation and synchronization during sentence comprehension in high-functioning autism: evidence of underconnectivity. Brain, 127(8), 1811-1821. doi:10.1093/brain/awh199
Kim, H. S., An, Y. M., Kwon, J. S., & Shin, M. S. (2014). A preliminary validity study of the cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery for the assessment of executive function in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Investig, 11(4), 394-401. doi:10.4306/pi.2014.11.4.394
Lai, M. C., Lombardo, M. V., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Autism. Lancet, 383(9920), 896-910. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61539-1
Lenroot, R. K., & Yeung, P. K. (2013). Heterogeneity within Autism Spectrum Disorders: What have We Learned from Neuroimaging Studies? Front Hum Neurosci, 7, 733. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00733
Lin, H. Y., Ni, H. C., Lai, M. C., Tseng, W. I., & Gau, S. S. (2015). Regional brain volume differences between males with and without autism spectrum disorder are highly age-dependent. Mol Autism, 6, 29. doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0022-3
Liu, J., Yao, L., Zhang, W., Xiao, Y., Liu, L., Gao, X., . . . Lui, S. (2017). Gray matter abnormalities in pediatric autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis with signed differential mapping. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(8), 933-945. doi:10.1007/s00787-017-0964-4
Lopez, B. R., Lincoln, A. J., Ozonoff, S., & Lai, Z. (2005). Examining the Relationship between Executive Functions and Restricted, Repetitive Symptoms of Autistic Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(4), 445-460. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-5035-x
Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 24(5), 659-685. doi:10.1007/bf02172145
Luciana, M. (2003). Practitioner review: computerized assessment of neuropsychological function in children: clinical and research applications of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB). J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 44(5), 649-663. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00152
Luna, B., Minshew, N. J., Garver, K. E., Lazar, N. A., Thulborn, K. R., Eddy, W. F., & Sweeney, J. A. (2002). Neocortical system abnormalities in autism: an fMRI study of spatial working memory. Neurology, 59(6), 834-840. doi:10.1212/wnl.59.6.834
Mechelli, A., Price, C. J., Friston, K. J., & Ashburner, J. (2005). Voxel-based morphometry of the human brain: methods and applications. Current Medical Imaging, 1(2), 105-113.
Menon, V. (2018). The Triple Network Model, Insight, and Large-Scale Brain Organization in Autism. Biol Psychiatry, 84(4), 236-238. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.06.012
Metcalfe, J., & Mischel, W. (1999). A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: dynamics of willpower. Psychol Rev, 106(1), 3-19. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.1.3
Nair, A., Jolliffe, M., Lograsso, Y. S. S., & Bearden, C. E. (2020). A Review of Default Mode Network Connectivity and Its Association With Social Cognition in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Early-Onset Psychosis. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 614-614. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00614
Nejati, V., Salehinejad, M. A., & Nitsche, M. A. (2018). Interaction of the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (l-DLPFC) and Right Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) in Hot and Cold Executive Functions: Evidence from Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS). Neuroscience, 369, 109-123. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.10.042
Neufeld, J., Kuja-Halkola, R., Mevel, K., Cauvet, É., Fransson, P., & Bölte, S. (2018). Alterations in resting state connectivity along the autism trait continuum: a twin study. Molecular Psychiatry, 23(7), 1659-1665. doi:10.1038/mp.2017.160
Nickl-Jockschat, T., Habel, U., Michel, T. M., Manning, J., Laird, A. R., Fox, P. T., . . . Eickhoff, S. B. (2012). Brain structure anomalies in autism spectrum disorder--a meta-analysis of VBM studies using anatomic likelihood estimation. Hum Brain Mapp, 33(6), 1470-1489. doi:10.1002/hbm.21299
Nordahl, C. W., Dierker, D., Mostafavi, I., Schumann, C. M., Rivera, S. M., Amaral, D. G., & Van Essen, D. C. (2007). Cortical folding abnormalities in autism revealed by surface-based morphometry. J Neurosci, 27(43), 11725-11735. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0777-07.2007
Ozonoff, S., Cook, I., Coon, H., Dawson, G., Joseph, R. M., Klin, A., . . . Wrathall, D. (2004). Performance on Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery subtests sensitive to frontal lobe function in people with autistic disorder: evidence from the Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism network. J Autism Dev Disord, 34(2), 139-150. doi:10.1023/b:jadd.0000022605.81989.cc
Ozonoff, S., South, M., & Provencal, S. (2005). Executive functions. In Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders: Diagnosis, development, neurobiology, and behavior, Vol. 1, 3rd ed. (pp. 606-627). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Padmanabhan, A., Lynch, C. J., Schaer, M., & Menon, V. (2017). The Default Mode Network in Autism. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging, 2(6), 476-486. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.04.004
Papinutto, N., Galantucci, S., Mandelli, M. L., Gesierich, B., Jovicich, J., Caverzasi, E., . . . Gorno-Tempini, M. L. (2016). Structural connectivity of the human anterior temporal lobe: A diffusion magnetic resonance imaging study. Human brain mapping, 37(6), 2210-2222. doi:10.1002/hbm.23167
Pellicano, E. (2007). Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: clues to developmental primacy. Dev Psychol, 43(4), 974-990. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.974
Redcay, E. (2008). The superior temporal sulcus performs a common function for social and speech perception: implications for the emergence of autism. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 32(1), 123-142. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.06.004
Riddle, K., Cascio, C. J., & Woodward, N. D. (2017). Brain structure in autism: a voxel-based morphometry analysis of the Autism Brain Imaging Database Exchange (ABIDE). Brain Imaging Behav, 11(2), 541-551. doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9534-5
Robinson, S., Goddard, L., Dritschel, B., Wisley, M., & Howlin, P. (2009). Executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorders. Brain Cogn, 71(3), 362-368. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.06.007
Rojas, D. C., Peterson, E., Winterrowd, E., Reite, M. L., Rogers, S. J., & Tregellas, J. R. (2006). Regional gray matter volumetric changes in autism associated with social and repetitive behavior symptoms. BMC Psychiatry, 6, 56. doi:10.1186/1471-244x-6-56
Rolls, E., Huang, C.-C., Feng, J., & Marc, J. (2019). Automated anatomical labelling atlas 3. NeuroImage, 206, 116189. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116189
Russell, J. E. (1997). Autism as an executive disorder: Oxford University Press.
Schmitz, N., Rubia, K., Daly, E., Smith, A., Williams, S., & Murphy, D. G. (2006). Neural correlates of executive function in autistic spectrum disorders. Biol Psychiatry, 59(1), 7-16. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.007
Seng, G. J., Tseng, W. L., Chiu, Y. N., Tsai, W. C., Wu, Y. Y., & Gau, S. S. (2020). Executive functions in youths with autism spectrum disorder and their unaffected siblings. Psychol Med, 1-10. doi:10.1017/s0033291720001075
Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 298(1089), 199-209. doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0082
Shang, C. Y., Wu, Y. H., Gau, S. S., & Tseng, W. Y. (2013). Disturbed microstructural integrity of the frontostriatal fiber pathways and executive dysfunction in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychol Med, 43(5), 1093-1107. doi:10.1017/s0033291712001869
Shen, S., & Sterr, A. (2013). Is DARTEL-based voxel-based morphometry affected by width of smoothing kernel and group size? A study using simulated atrophy. J Magn Reson Imaging, 37(6), 1468-1475. doi:10.1002/jmri.23927
Smith, S. M., & Nichols, T. E. (2009). Threshold-free cluster enhancement: Addressing problems of smoothing, threshold dependence and localisation in cluster inference. NeuroImage, 44(1), 83-98. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.061
Song, F., Guo, Z., & Mei, D. (2010, 12-14 Nov. 2010). Feature Selection Using Principal Component Analysis. Paper presented at the 2010 International Conference on System Science, Engineering Design and Manufacturing Informatization.
Sparks, B. F., Friedman, S. D., Shaw, D. W., Aylward, E. H., Echelard, D., Artru, A. A., . . . Dager, S. R. (2002). Brain structural abnormalities in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Neurology, 59(2), 184-192. doi:10.1212/wnl.59.2.184
Stuss, D. T. (2011). Functions of the frontal lobes: relation to executive functions. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 17(5), 759-765. doi:10.1017/s1355617711000695
Taylor, M. J., Donner, E. J., & Pang, E. W. (2012). fMRI and MEG in the study of typical and atypical cognitive development. Neurophysiologie Clinique/Clinical Neurophysiology, 42(1), 19-25. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucli.2011.08.002
Turner, D. C., Robbins, T. W., Clark, L., Aron, A. R., Dowson, J., & Sahakian, B. J. (2003). Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 165(3), 260-269. doi:10.1007/s00213-002-1250-8
Tzourio-Mazoyer, N., Landeau, B., Papathanassiou, D., Crivello, F., Etard, O., Delcroix, N., . . . Joliot, M. (2002). Automated anatomical labeling of activations in SPM using a macroscopic anatomical parcellation of the MNI MRI single-subject brain. NeuroImage, 15(1), 273-289.
Uddin, L. Q., & Menon, V. (2009). The anterior insula in autism: under-connected and under-examined. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 33(8), 1198-1203. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.06.002
Van Eylen, L., Boets, B., Steyaert, J., Wagemans, J., & Noens, I. (2015). Executive functioning in autism spectrum disorders: influence of task and sample characteristics and relation to symptom severity. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 24(11), 1399-1417. doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0689-1
Waiter, G. D., Williams, J. H., Murray, A. D., Gilchrist, A., Perrett, D. I., & Whiten, A. (2004). A voxel-based investigation of brain structure in male adolescents with autistic spectrum disorder. NeuroImage, 22(2), 619-625. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.02.029
Waterhouse, L. (2013). Rethinking autism: Variation and complexity: Academic Press.
Wechsler, D. (1991). WISC-3: Wechsler intelligence scale for children: manual: Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D., & De Lemos, M. M. (1981). Wechsler adult intelligence scale-revised.
Wilke, M., Schmithorst, V. J., & Holland, S. K. (2002). Assessment of spatial normalization of whole-brain magnetic resonance images in children. Hum Brain Mapp, 17(1), 48-60. doi:10.1002/hbm.10053
Yang, X., Si, T., Gong, Q., Qiu, L., Jia, Z., Zhou, M., . . . Zhu, H. (2016). Brain gray matter alterations and associated demographic profiles in adults with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 50(8), 741-753. doi:10.1177/0004867415623858
Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., & Blumberg, S. J. (2015). Estimated Prevalence of Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities Following Questionnaire Changes in the 2014 National Health Interview Survey. Natl Health Stat Report(87), 1-20.
Zielinski, B. A., Prigge, M. B. D., Nielsen, J. A., Froehlich, A. L., Abildskov, T. J., Anderson, J. S., . . . Lainhart, J. E. (2014). Longitudinal changes in cortical thickness in autism and typical development. Brain, 137(6), 1799-1812. doi:10.1093/brain/awu083