臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

垂直共振腔面射型雷射（VCSEL）是一種高效能、迷你尺寸的半導體雷射，具有高速調變能力，並被應用於各種領域，包括數據通訊、感測和成像。其獨特的特性使其非常適合進行高速光學數據傳輸。第1章介紹了VCSEL的簡要歷史、優缺點、應用領域。並且簡單敘述論文中討論的單模VCSEL及低溫VCSEL的運用及需求。第2章對設計現代高速VCSEL的特性、需求及優化的方向進行了一些說明及討論。此外，市場上目前可用的多模（MM）VCSEL在長距離傳輸中可能會因為模態色散問題而面臨嚴重的傳輸數據速率懲罰，因此人們越來越關注開發單模（SM）或少模（FM）VCSELs，以提高中長距離VCSEL光互連光源的性能。本論文第3章描述了使用原子層沉積(ALD)的成長的氧化鋁(Al2O3)薄膜來提高SM-VCSEL的性能的研究。經過ALD處理的SM-VCSEL表現出改善的光電特性，並取得了一項可能創紀錄的結果，達到了29.1 GHz的單模VCSEL頻寬。
VCSEL作為資料中心中必須的傳輸模組的重要器件也是擔任了人類資訊化發展的基石，因此業界對於VCSEL在高溫下的工作能力有迫切需求。由於VCSEL發光區兩側的反射鏡結構引起的嚴重內部熱效應，在高溫下，VCSEL面臨著功耗、線寬、模式與偏振穩定性、調制速率等關鍵性能方面的巨大挑戰。因此業界往往對其高溫特性提升一直有著強烈的需求。
同時，對於在超低溫和低溫操作的計算系統而言，需要將大量信息從低溫電路傳輸到傳統電子計算控制器中。緊湊、高效的低溫VCSEL光學連接可以用來取代傳統的銅線。幾乎所有的研究都較為關注開發低於100 K低溫VCSEL的性能並作為潛在的量子運用開發。同時，低於0至−50 °C攝氏度的低溫範圍，由於在量子運用這個熱點較為沒有那麼突出而被不少研發團度所忽視。第4章描述了對探討一個可工作於0到−50 °C低溫VCSEL的研究調查，該低溫VCSEL分別在−25 °C提供35 GHz的頻寬、在−50 °C的低溫提供40.1 GHz的頻寬。
第5章是論文的簡單總結及未來展望，同時還包含一個在25 °C、85 °C和低溫下對截至今VCSEL科技的成果對比圖。論文作者希望本論文可以作為開發、研究及分析在單模及低溫等特殊運用的VCSEL的參考資料。

The vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) is a high-efficient, miniature-sized semiconductor laser with high-speed modulation capabilities. VCSELs have gained significant attention and found various applications, including data communication, sensing, and imaging. Their unique characteristics make them suitable for high-speed optical data transmission. Chapter 1 introduces the brief history of VCSELs, their pros and cons, and their applications. However, the development of modern high-speed VCSELs is complex and faces various obstacles to carrying more data in individual fibers. Chapter 2 of this thesis summarizes and discusses the important criteria for designing modern high-speed VCSELs.
Besides, the multi-mode (MM)-VCSELs available on the market today could suffer from serious transmission data rate penalties over long-distance due to the modal dispersion issues, and there is an increasing interest in developing single-mode or few-mode VCSELs for enhanced mid- to long-reach VCSEL-based optical interconnect light sources. Chapter 3 depicts the study of using atomic layer deposited (ALD) film of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) to enhance the performances of SM-VCSELs. The ALD-passivated SM-VCSEL shows improved optoelectronic characteristics and reaches a believed to be record-breaking result of single-mode bandwidth of 29.1 GHz.
VCSEL, as an essential component of transmission modules in data centers, also serves as the cornerstone of human information development. Therefore, there is an urgent demand in the industry for the high-temperature operating capability of VCSELs. Due to the severe internal thermal effects caused by the reflective mirror structure on both sides of the VCSEL emission area, VCSELs face significant challenges in terms of power consumption, linewidth, mode and polarization stability, modulation rate, and other key performance aspects at high temperatures. Consequently, there has been a strong industry demand for the improvement of its high-temperature characteristics.
Meanwhile, for the computing systems operating in sub-freezing and cryogenic temperatures, there is a need to transfer massive amounts of information from the cryostat circuits to the classical electronic computing controllers. Compact, high-efficient cryogenic VCSEL optical links could be used to replace conventional copper wirings. Almost all works only focus on the cryogenic performances of VCSELs at sub–100 K temperatures for potential usage in quantum computing. Meanwhile, the 0 to −50 °C sub-freezing perature range is probably what most people have overlooked by many research and development teams due to the lack of quantum utilization in this temperature regime. Chapter 4 depicts the study of an investigation on a sub-freezing VCSEL offering 35-GHz bandwidth at −25 °C and 40.1-GHz at a low temperature of −50 °C. Chapter 5 is a brief conclusion and the future perspectives. The author has also included a state-of-the-art VCSEL benchmark table in the 25 °C, 85 °C, and cryogenics. The author hopes this thesis can be a reference for designing, and studying VCSELs for specialized applications in single-mode and sub-freezing applications.

Verification Letter from the Oral Examination Committee i
Acknowledgements iii
摘要 vii
Abstract ix
Contents xiii
List of Figures xxi
List of Tables xxix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is VCSEL 1
1.2 The invention and development of VCSEL 2
1.3 A little more about the history of VCSELs 6
1.4 Pros and cons of VCSELs 7
1.4.1 Pros 7
1.4.2 Cons 9
1.5 Applications of VCSELs 10
1.5.1 Datacom 11
1.5.2 Sensing 12
1.5.3 Autonomous vehicle system (AVS) 13
1.5.4 Display 14
1.5.5 Computing 15
1.5.6 Aerosensing 15
1.5.7 Quantum computing 16
1.6 Market of VCSELs 18
1.7 Various signal modulation formats 19
1.7.1 PAM-2 (NRZ) 22
1.7.2 PAM-4 23
1.7.3 QAM 24
1.7.4 FDM 25
1.8 Importance of SM transmission with VCSELs 26
1.8.1 Modal dispersion 26
1.8.2 Spectral width 27
1.8.3 Reduced mode VCSELs for long-range transmission 28
1.8.4 Means of mode control for SM emission 30
1.8.5 Sidewall Issues 33
1.9 Passivation of the VCSEL sidewalls 34
1.9.1 Issues could be induced from passivation issues 35
1.9.2 Passivation methods 36
1.1 Extreme temperature operations 38
1.10.1 Importance of high-temperature operation of VCSELs 39
1.10.2 Developing VCSELs to operate at freezing temperatures 40
1.11 Summary 41
Chapter 2 Critical design features of next-generation high-speed VCSELs 43
2.1 Abstract 43
2.2 Introduction 44
2.3 Basic concepts of VCSELs 44
2.3.1 Device Structure 44
2.4 Evolution of 850-nm high-speed VCSELs 47
2.5 Design consideration in high-speed VCSELs 47
2.5.1 Transfer Functions 48
2.5.2 Active Region Design 49
2.6 Design consideration in temperature insensitive and sub-freezing VCSELs 51
2.6.1 Importance of temperature-insensitive VCSELs for stable operation at extreme temperatures 51
2.6.2 Importance of temperature insensitive design 53
2.6.2.1 Gain–cavity offset design 54
2.6.2.2 Heat flow enhancement 55
2.6.2.3 Other consideration of temperature insensitivity 56
2.7 Motivation for a microwave study on VCSELs 57
2.7.1 Importance of recombination lifetime in lasers 59
2.7.2 Importance of photon lifetime in lasers 60
2.7.2.1 MCEF and D-Factor 61
2.7.2.2 K-Factor 63
2.7.3 Small-signal modeling 64
2.8 How small-signal analysis benefits studying VCSELs 66
2.8.0.1 Driver circuit optimizations 66
2.8.0.2 SPICE circuit model 67
2.8.0.3 The Smith chart 68
2.9 Extrinsic parasitic optimizations 69
2.9.1 Epilayer optimizations 70
2.9.2 Layout Optimizations 71
2.9.3 Passivation materials 72
2.9.4 Zinc diffusion 73
2.1 Other process considerations in VCSELs 74
2.10.1 Passivations 76
2.10.1.1 Atomic layer deposition (ALD) 76
2.10.2 Mesa/trench etching 78
2.11 Layout optimizations 80
2.12 What we may expect from the next-generation VCSELs 80
2.13 Summary 83
Chapter 3 Enhancing single-mode VCSELs with atomic layer deposition grown Al2O3 sidewall passivation 85
3.1 Abstract 85
3.2 Introduction 86
3.3 Method 92
3.3.1 Epitaxial design 92
3.3.2 Processing 92
3.3.3 Why Aluminium Oxide? 94
3.3.4 ALD grown conditions 94
3.4 Results 95
3.4.1 Static characteristics 95
3.4.2 Statistical analysis 97
3.4.3 Microwave characteristics 99
3.5 Discussion 102
3.5.1 Effects of the ALD-grown sidewall passivation films 102
3.5.2 Proposed small-signal equivalent circuit model considering the sidewall losses 105
3.5.3 Extraction of the small-signal model parameters 106
3.5.4 Estimated pole location of the sidewall components 109
3.6 Summary 111
Chapter 4 Sub-freezing VCSELs: a microwave study on the e-h recombination and photon lifetimes 113
4.1 Abstract 114
4.2 Introduction 114
4.3 Method 118
4.4 Results 120
4.4.1 Static characteristics 120
4.4.1.1 Temperature-dependent light-current-voltage (L-I-V) 120
4.4.1.2 Temperature-dependent optical spectra 122
4.4.2 Microwave optical modulation response 124
4.5 Discussion 126
4.5.1 Junction temperature analysis 126
4.5.2 Microwave small-signal circuit modeling 127
4.5.3 Microwave extraction of τrec and τphon 130
4.6 Future works on the sub-freezing VCSELs 134
4.7 Summary 134
Chapter 5 Conclusion 137
5.1 Historical review on 850-nm VCSELs and their upcoming features 137
5.1.1 Milestones of 850-nm VCSELs performance at RT 138
5.1.2 Milestones of 850-nm VCSELs performance at 85 °C 139
5.1.3 Milestones on cryogenic and sub-freezing VCSELs 144
5.2 Future Works 146
5.2.1 Practical temperature-insensitive VCSELs 146
5.2.1.1 Design strategies for temperature-insensitive VCSELs 147
5.2.1.2 QW-VCSELs 148
5.2.1.3 QD-VCSELs 149
5.2.2 If it is possible to have temperature-insensitive VCSELs that operate at both RT and cryogenics? 150
5.2.3 Implementing cryogenic/freezing VCSELs into practical application 150
5.2.3.1 Cryogenic VCSEL-based optical links for quantum computers? 151
5.2.4 Further in-depth study on ALD-passivated VCSELs 152
5.2.4.1 Study of the leakages in sidewalls 153
5.2.4.2 Measurement of leakage currents 153
5.2.4.3 Material analysis & verification 155
5.3 Summary 155
References 157
Appendix A - List of Publications 201

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