臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究旨在探討幼兒負向情緒性氣質、情緒調節能力與退縮行為在其三歲至六歲期間的縱貫關聯性，並進一步檢視幼兒情緒調節能力在其負向情緒性氣質對其退縮行為影響途徑的中介效果。本研究採用臺灣幼兒發展調查資料庫36月齡組之四波追蹤資料進行次級分析，保留無重大傷病卡與身心障礙證明，且四波調查資料均由同一位親生父母完整填答量表內容之1,203名幼兒樣本（男生佔50.6%）。結果指出，在納入家庭社經地位、幼兒性別的前提下，幼兒在三歲及五歲時的負向情緒性氣質程度均可正向預測其隔年的退縮行為程度，且幼兒在四歲及五歲時的退縮行為程度均可正向預測其隔年的負向情緒性氣質程度，顯示幼兒在五歲至六歲間，其負向情緒性氣質程度與退縮行為程度具有顯著的雙向關聯性。此外，僅幼兒在三歲時的情緒調節能力可負向預測其隔年的退縮行為程度，且僅幼兒在四歲時的退縮行為程度可負向預測其隔年的情緒調節能力，顯示幼兒情緒調節能力與退縮行為程度之間僅具有單向的預測效果。最後，在納入家庭社經地位、幼兒性別預測效果的交互延宕模式中，幼兒情緒調節能力在幼兒負向情緒性氣質程度對其退縮行為程度影響途徑不具顯著的中介效果。綜上所述，建議幼兒的主要照顧者應敏銳覺察孩子的負面情緒，倘若發現孩子容易被周遭環境誘發高強度的負面情緒，則可適時給予撫慰，進而讓幼兒較不易對陌生情境產生退縮，且幼兒若具有較高的退縮傾向，主要照顧者亦可先了解孩子表現退縮的原因，並能陪伴孩子一起面對陌生情境，如此，將可降低孩子在未來被環境誘發負面情緒的機會。

The goals of this study were to examine the associations between negative emotionality temperament, emotion regulation and withdrawal behaviors during preschoolers aged 36 to 72 months. The study used data from "Kids in Taiwan: National Longitudinal Study of Child Development and Care," which were completed by fathers or mothers when their non-disabled children were 36, 48, 60 and 72 months old (N = 1,203, 50.6% boys). The results indicated that after controlling the effect of socioeconomic status (SES) and sex, preschoolers' negative emotionality temperament (when they were 36 and 60 months old) were positive and significant on their withdrawal behaviors one year later; and preschoolers' withdrawal behaviors (when they were 48 and 60 months old) were positive and significant on their negative emotionality temperament one year later. That is, there had positive bidirectional associations between preschoolers' negative emotionality temperament and their withdrawal behaviors during preschoolers aged 60 to 72 months. After controlling the effect of SES and sex, preschoolers' emotion regulation (ER) (only when they were 36 months old) was negative and significant on their withdrawal behaviors one year later; and preschoolers' withdrawal behaviors (only when they were 48 months old) was negative and significant on their ER one year later. That is, there didn't have bidirectional associations between preschoolers' ER and their withdrawal behaviors. Finally, preschoolers' ER didn't have the mediating effect between their negative emotionality temperament and withdrawal behaviors. Based on the current results, caregivers are encouraged to be sensitive and responsive for preschoolers' negative emotions. If preschoolers' negative emotions were easily aroused by surroundings, caregivers should provide timely response to reduce preschoolers' negative emotions and their withdrawal behaviors in an unfamiliar situations. At the same time, if preschoolers have more withdrawal behaviors, caregivers can ask their children talk the reasons of their withdrawn and accompany their children to face the unfamiliar environments together. Therefore, it can reduce preschoolers' negative emotions aroused by unfamiliar surroundings in the future.

第壹章 緒論 1
第一節 研究動機 1
第二節 名詞釋義 3
第貳章 文獻探討 5
第一節 退縮行為 5
第二節 幼兒負向情緒性氣質與退縮行為之關聯性 18
第三節 幼兒情緒調節能力與退縮行為之關聯性 22
第四節 幼兒負向情緒性氣質、情緒調節能力與退縮行為間之關聯 27
第參章 研究方法 31
第一節 研究架構 31
第二節 研究對象 31
第三節 研究工具 34
第四節 資料處理 36
第肆章 研究結果 37
第一節 描敘性統計分析 37
第二節 相關分析 39
第三節 交互延宕模式分析 42
第伍章 討論 48
第一節 幼兒負向情緒性氣質與退縮行為之雙向預測性 48
第二節 幼兒情緒調節能力與退縮行為之雙向預測性 49
第三節 情緒調節能力作為中介效果 51
第陸章 結論與建議 53
參考文獻 58
中文部分 58
西文部分 58

行政院（2021）：《我國薪資狀況分析及因應對策》。
行政院（2022）：《110年家庭收支調查報告》。
李宇雯、張鑑如（2022）：〈雙親家庭親職參與及家庭社會經濟背景與幼兒語言發展關聯之研究〉。《當代教育研究季刊》，30（2），167–205。https://doi.org/10.6151/CERQ.202206_30(2).0005
林佳慧、劉惠美、張鑑如（2019）：〈家庭脈絡下的親子共讀與幼兒發展關係-臺灣幼兒發展調查資料庫的應用與分析〉。《教育心理學報》，51，135–159。https://doi.org/10.6251/BEP.201909_51(1).0006
徐美（2021）：〈臺灣高等教育擴張政策實施對大學及以上學歷與過度教育工作者薪資之影響〉。《臺灣經濟預測與政策》，51（2），1–48。
張鑑如、謝淑惠、周麗端、廖鳳瑞（2017）：〈幼兒發展調查資料庫建置計畫簡介〉。《中國統計學報》，55（1），42–62。
章英華、杜素豪、廖培珊（2014）：《台灣社會變遷基本調查計畫第六期第二次調查計畫執行報告》。中央研究院人文社會科學研究中心出版。
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Child behavior checklist for ages 4-18. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1986). The child behavior checklist for ages 2-3. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Anan, R. M., & Barnett, D. (1999). Perceived social support mediates between prior attachment and subsequent adjustment: A study of urban African American children. Developmental Psychology, 35(5), 1210–1222. https://doi.org/10.1037/00121649.35.5.1210
Asendorpf, J. (1990). Beyond social withdrawal: Shyness, unsociability and peer avoidance. Human Development, 33(4), 250–259. https://doi.org/10.1159/000276522
Asendorpf, J. (1993). Abnormal shyness in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(7), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb01774.x
Balkaya, M., Cheah, C. S., Yu, J., Hart, C. H., & Sun, S. (2018). Maternal encouragement of modest behavior, temperamental shyness, and anxious withdrawal linkages to Chinese American children's social adjustment: A moderated mediation analysis. Social Development, 27(4), 876–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12295
Bayer, J. K., Hastings, P. D., Sanson, A. V., Ukoumunne, O. C., & Rubin, K. H. (2010). Predicting mid-childhood internalising symptoms: A longitudinal community study. International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 12(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623730.2010.9721802
Bayer, J. K., Sanson, A. V., & Hemphill, S. A. (2006). Parent influences on early childhood internalizing difficulties. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(6), 542–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2006.08.002
Behrendt, H. F., Wade, M., Bayet, L., Nelson, C. A., & Enlow, M. B. (2020). Pathways to social emotional functioning in the preschool period: The role of child temperament and maternal anxiety in boys and girls. Development and Psychopathology, 32(3), 961–974. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000853
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588–606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588
Berthelon, M., Contreras, D., Kruger, D., & Palma, M. I. (2020). Harsh parenting during early childhood and child development. Economics and Human Biology, 36, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2019.100831
Blair, K. A., Denham, S. A., Kochanoff, A., & Whipple, B. (2004). Playing it cool: Temperament, emotion regulation, and social behavior in preschoolers. Journal of School Psychology, 42(6), 419–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2004.10.002
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University.
Bulotsky-Shearer, R. J., Carter Clopêt, T. M., Williford, A. P., Alamos, P., & Hasbrouck, S. (2023). Making the invisible visible: Using a contextual measurement approach to identify children with social-emotional and behavioral needs in preschool classrooms. Topics in Early childhood Special Education, 42(4), 344-356. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214221111396
Burlaka, V., Bermann, E. A., & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2015). Internalizing problems in at-risk preschoolers: Associations with child and mother risk factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(9), 2653–2660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0067-5
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Camodeca, M., & Coppola, G. (2019). Participant roles in preschool bullying: The impact of emotion regulation, social preference, and quality of the teacher-child relationship. Social Development, 28(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12320
Carapito, E., Ribeiro, M. T., Pereira, A. I., & Roberto, M. S. (2018). Parenting stress and preschoolers’ socio-emotional adjustment: The mediating role of parenting styles in parent-child dyads. Journal of Family Studies, 26(4), 594–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2018.1442737
Carter, A. S., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Jones, S. M., & Little, T. D. (2003). The infant-toddler social and emotional assessment (ITSEA): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(5), 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025449031360
Carver, C. S., Lawrence, J. W., & Scheier, M. F. (1996). A control-process perspective on the origins of affect. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 11–52). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Cassiano, R. G., Gaspardo, C. M., & Linhares, M. B. M. (2019). Temperament moderated by neonatal factors predicted behavioral problems in childhood: A prospective longitudinal study. Early Human Development, 135, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2019.06.006
Cha, K. (2022). A longitudinal approach to the relationships among sleep, behavioral adjustment, and maternal depression in preschoolers. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 819657. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.819657
Chang, H., Shelleby, E. C., Cheong, J., & Shaw, D. S. (2012). Cumulative risk, negative emotionality, and emotion regulation as predictors of social competence in transition to school: A mediated moderation model. Social Development, 21(4), 780–800. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14679507.2011.00648.x
Clark, S. E., Locke, R. L., Baxendale, S. L., & Seifer, R. (2022). Withdrawn behavior in preschool: Implications for emotion knowledge and broader emotional competence. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 895557. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.895557
Cohen, J. (1992). Statistical power analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3), 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768783
Cole, C. E., Zapp, D. J., Fettig, N. B., & Pérez-Edgar, K. (2016). Impact of attention biases to threat and effortful control on individual variations in negative affect and social withdrawal in very young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 141, 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.012
Coplan, R. J., Arbeau, K. A., & Armer, M. (2008). Don't fret, be supportive! Maternal characteristics linking child shyness to psychosocial and school adjustment in kindergarten. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(3), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9183-7
Coplan, R. J., Rose-Krasnor, L., Weeks, M., Kingsbury, A., Kingsbury, M., & Bullock, A. (2013). Alone is a crowd: Social motivations, social withdrawal, and socioemotional functioning in later childhood. Developmental Psychology, 49(5), 861–875. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028861
Coyne, L. W., & Thompson, A. D. (2011). Maternal depression, locus of control, and emotion regulatory strategy as predictors of preschoolers' internalizing problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(6), 873–883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-011-9455-2
Crawford, N. A., Schrock, M., & WoodruffBorden, J. (2011). Child internalizing symptoms: Contributions of child temperament, maternal negative affect, and family functioning. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 42(1), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-010-0202-5
Cremone, A., de Jong, D. M., Kurdziel, L. B., Desrochers, P., Sayer, A., LeBourgeois, M. K., Spencer, R., & McDermott, J. M. (2018). Sleep tight, act right: Negative affect, sleep and behavior problems during early childhood. Child Development, 89(2), 42–59. https//doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12717
Crespo, L. M., Trentacosta, C. J., Aikins, D., & Wargo-Aikins, J. (2017). Maternal emotion regulation and children’s behavior problems: The mediating role of child emotion regulation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(10), 2797–2809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0791-8
Crockenberg, S. C., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004). Infant and maternal behaviors regulate infant reactivity to novelty at 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 40(6), 1123–1132. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1123
Crockenberg, S. C., & Leerkes, E. M. (2006). Infant and maternal behavior moderate reactivity to novelty to predict anxious behavior at 2.5 years. Development and Psychopathology, 18(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579406060020
Curby, T. W., Brown, C. A., Bassett, H. H., & Denham, S. A. (2015). Associations between preschoolers' social-emotional competence and preliteracy skills. Infant and Child Development, 24(5), 549–570. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1899
Davis, S., Votruba-Drzal, E., & Silk, J. S. (2015). Trajectories of internalizing symptoms from early childhood to adolescence: Associations with temperament and parenting. Social Development, 24(3), 501–520. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12105
de Maat, D. A., Schuurmans, I. K., Jongerling, J., Metcalf, S. A., Lucassen, N., Franken, I. H. A., Prinzie, P., & Jansen, P. W. (2022). Early life stress and behavior problems in early childhood: Investigating the contributions of child temperament and executive functions to resilience. Child Development, 93(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13663
DeMulder, E. K., Denham, S., Schmidt, M., & Mitchell, J. (2000). Q-Sort assessment of attachment security during the preschool years: Links from home to school. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 274–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.274
Deneault, A. A., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Groh, A. M., Fearon, P. R., & Madigan, S. (2021). Child-father attachment in early childhood and behavior problems: A meta‐analysis. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2021(180), 43–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20434
Di Maggio, R., Zappulla, C., & Pace, U. (2016). The relationship between emotion knowledge, emotion regulation and adjustment in preschoolers: A mediation mod-el. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(8), 2626–2635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0409-6
Dobbs, J., Doctoroff, G. L., Fisher, P. H., & Arnold, D. H. (2006). The association between preschool children's socio-emotional functioning and their mathematical skills. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(2), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2005.12.008
Edwards, E. P., Eiden, R. D., & Leonard, K. E. (2006). Behavior problems in 18- to 36-month-old children of alcoholic fathers: Secure mother-infant attachment as a protective factor. Development and Psychopathology, 18(2), 395–407. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579406060214
Engle, J. M., & McElwain, N. L. (2011). Parental reactions to toddlers' negative emotions and child negative emotionality as correlates of problem behavior at the age of three. Social Development, 20(2), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2010.00583.x
Ewing, A. R., & Taylor, A. R. (2009). The role of child gender and ethnicity in teacher child relationship quality and children's behavioral adjustment in preschool. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(1), 92–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2008.09.002
Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., & Rothbart, M. K. (2012). Etiology of preschool behavior problems: Contributions of temperament attributes in early childhood. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33(2), 197–211. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21312
Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2003). Studying infant temperament via the revised infant behavior questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development, 26(1), 64–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-6383(02)00169-8
Ghassabian, A., Székely, E., Herba, C. M., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., Oldehinkel, A. J., Verhulst, F. C., & Tiemeier, H. (2014). From positive emotionality to internalizing problems: The role of executive functioning in preschoolers. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23(9), 729–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0542-y
Giesbrecht, G. F., Letourneau, N., Dewey, D., & APrON Study Team. (2022). Latent class trajectories of infant temperament and associations with problem behavior at two years of age. Development and Psychopathology, 34(1), 69–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420000991
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(5), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/10892680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 3–20). The Guilford Press.
Guo, Y., Spieker, S. J., & Borelli, J. L. (2021). Emotion co-regulation among mother preschooler dyads completing the strange situation: Relations to internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30, 699–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01812-3
Hair Jr, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2021). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). SAGE Publications.
Hart, C. H., Yang, C., Nelson, L. J., Robinson, C. C., Olsen, J. A., Nelson, D. A., Porter, C. L., Jin, S., Olsen, S. F., & Wu, P. (2000). Peer acceptance in early childhood and subtypes of socially withdrawn behavior in China, Russia, and the United States. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(1), 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/016502500383494
Hastings, P. D., Ruttle, P. L., Serbin, L. A., Mills, R. S., Stack, D. M., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2011). Adrenocortical responses to strangers in preschoolers: Relations with parenting, temperament, and psychopathology. Developmental Psychobiology, 53(7), 694–710. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20545
Hernandez, E., Smith, C. L., Day, K. L., Neal, A., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2018). Patterns of parental emotion-related discourse and links with children’s problem behaviors: A person-centered approach. Developmental Psychology, 54(11), 2077–2089. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000602
Holden, G. W., Vittrup, B., & Rosen, L. H. (2011). Families, parenting, and discipline. In M. K. Underwood & L. H. Rosen (Eds.), Social development: Relationships in infancy, childhood, and adolescence (pp. 127–152). The Guilford Press.
Howes, C., Hamilton, C. E., & Matheson, C. C. (1994). Children's relationships with peers: Differential associations with aspects of the teacher-child relationship. Child Development, 65(1), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131379
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2004). From anxious temperament to disorder: An etiological model. In R. G. Heimberg, C. L. Turk, & D. S. Mennin (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 51–74). The Guilford Press.
Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(2), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021–843X.106.2.221
Kagan, J. (1998). Biology and the child. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 177–236). John Wiley & Sons.
Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (1999). Early childhood predictors of adult anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 46(11), 1536–1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006223(99)00137–7
Koopmans, T. C., Rubin, H., & Leipnik, R. B. (1950). Measuring the equation systems of dynamic economics. Statistical Inference in Dynamic Economic Models, 10, 53–237.
Kuhlman, K. R., Olson, S. L., & Lopez-Duran, N. L. (2014). Predicting developmental changes in internalizing symptoms: Examining the interplay between parenting and neuroendocrine stress reactivity. Developmental Psychobiology, 56(5), 908–923. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21166
Lionetti, F., Spinelli, M., Moscardino, U., Ponzetti, S., Garito, M. C., Dellagiulia, A., Aureli, T., Fasolo, M., & Pluess, M. (2023). The interplay between parenting and environmental sensitivity in the prediction of children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors during COVID-19. Development and Psychopathology, 35(3), 1390–1403. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421001309
Lonigan, C. J., & Vasey, M. W. (2009). Negative affectivity, effortful control, and attention to threat relevant stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(3), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9284-y
Meeus, W. (2016). Adolescent psychosocial development: A review of longitudinal models and research. Developmental Psychology, 52(12), 1969–1993.
Melis Yavuz, H., Selcuk, B., Corapci, F., & Aksan, N. (2017). Role of temperament, parenting behaviors, and stress on Turkish preschoolers’ internalizing symptoms. Social Development, 26(1), 109–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12192
Mills, R. S., Hastings, P. D., Helm, J., Serbin, L. A., Etezadi, J., Stack, D. M., Schwartzman, A. E. & Li, H. H. (2012). Temperamental, parental, and contextual contributors to early emerging internalizing problems: A new integrative analysis approach. Social Development, 21(2), 229–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00629.x
Milne, L., Greenway, P., Guedeney, A., & Larroque, B. (2009). Long term developmental impact of social withdrawal in infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 32(2), 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.12.006
Morales, S., Pérez-Edgar, K. E., & Buss, K. A. (2015). Attention biases towards and away from threat mark the relation between early dysregulated fear and the later emergence of social withdrawal. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(6), 1067–1078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9963-9
Muris, P., Meesters, C., & Merckelbach, H. (1996). Monitoring and fearfulness in children. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(6), 1059–1061. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00149-3
Nielsen, J. D., Olino, T. M., Dyson, M. W., & Klein, D. N. (2019). Reactive and regulatory temperament: Longitudinal associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms through childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(11), 1771–1784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00555-0
Nix, G., Watson, C., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1995). Reducing depressive affect through external focus of attention. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14(1), 36–52. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1995.14.1.36
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1993). Sex differences in control of depression. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 306–324). The Prentice Hall Press.
Noroña-Zhou, A. N., & Tung, I. (2021). Developmental patterns of emotion regulation in toddlerhood: Examining predictors of change and long-term resilience. Infant Mental Health Journal, 42(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21877
Northerner, L. M., Trentacosta, C. J., & McLear, C. M. (2016). Negative affectivity moderates associations between cumulative risk and at-risk toddlers' behavior problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(2), 691–699. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0248-x
Pianta, R. C., & Stuhlman, M. W. (2004). Teacher-child relationships and children's success in the first years of school. School Psychology Review, 33(3), 444–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2004.12086261
Putnam, S. P, Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2006). Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: The early childhood behavior questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development, 29(3), 386–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2006.01.004
Ren, L., Knoche, L. L., & Edwards, C. P. (2016). The relation between Chinese preschoolers’ social-emotional competence and pre-academic skills. Early Education and Development, 27(7), 875–895. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2016.1151719
Ren, X., Ren, X., Yan, Z., Lu, S., & Zhou, X. (2022). Parental psychological flexibility and children' s behavior problems in rural areas in Northeast China: The mediation of children's emotion regulation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315788
Ren, L., & Zhang, X. (2018). Paternal parenting, child temperament, and problem behavior: An investigation among young Hong Kong children. Infant and Child Development, 27(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2065
Ren, L., Zhang, X., Yang, W., & Song, Z. (2018). Relations among parenting, child behavioral regulation and early competencies: A study on Chinese preschoolers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(2), 639–652. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0898-y
Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Temperament, development, and personality. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(4), 207–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678721.2007.00505.x
Rothbart, M. K. (2011). Becoming who we are: Temperament and personality in development. The Guilford Press.
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development, (pp. 99–166). John Wiley & Sons.
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The children's behavior questionnaire. Child Development, 72(5), 1394–1408. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467–8624.00355
Rothbart, M. K., Sheese, B. E., & Conradt, E. D. (2009). Childhood temperament. In P. J. Corr & G. Matthews (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of personality psychology (pp. 177–190). Cambridge University.
Rubin, K. H. (2021). Social withdrawal in childhood: A personal history of theory and research that guided a program of developmental research. In R. J. Coplan, J. C. Bowker, & L. J. Nelson (Eds.), The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone (pp. 405–447). John Wiley & Sons.
Rubin, K. H., & Asendorpf, J. B. (1993). Social withdrawal, inhibition and shyness in childhood. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R. J., & Bowker, J. C. (2009). Social withdrawal in childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 141–171. https://doi.org/10.1146/anurev.psych.60.110707.163642
Rubin, D. H., Crehan, E. T., Althoff, R. R., Rettew, D. C., Krist, E., Harder, V., Walkup, J. T., & Hudziak, J. J. (2017). Temperamental characteristics of withdrawn behavior problems in children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 48, 478–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-016-0674-z
Sanson, A., Hemphill, S. A., & Smart, D. (2004). Connections between temperament and social development: A review. Social Development, 13(1), 142–170. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467–9507.2004.00261.x
Sanson, A. V., & Rothbart, M. K. (1995). Child temperament and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Applied and practical parenting (pp. 299–321). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Schmidt, M., Demulder, E., & Denham, S. (2002). Kindergarten social emotional competence: Developmental predictors and psychosocial implications. Early Child Development and Care, 172(5), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430214550
Sette, S., Baumgartner, E., Laghi, F., & Coplan, R. J. (2016). The role of emotion knowledge in the links between shyness and children’s socio-emotional functioning at preschool. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 34(4), 471–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12144
Shanahan, L., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., Kelleher, R., & Suffness, R. (2014). Trajectories of internalizing symptoms across childhood: The roles of biological self-regulation and maternal psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4), 1353–1368. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414001072
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Emotion regulation among school-age children: The development and validation of a new criterion Q-Sort scale. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 906–916. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.33.6.906
Shiffler, R. E. (1988). Maximum Z scores and outliers. The American Statistician, 42(1), 79–80. https://doi.org/10.2307/2685269
Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Forbes, E. E., Lane, T. L., & Kovacs, M. (2006). Maternal depression and child internalizing: The moderating role of child emotion regulation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(1), 116–126. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3501_10
Sirois, M. S., Bernier, A., & Lemelin, J. P. (2019). Child temperamental anger, mother child interactions, and socio-emotional functioning at school entry. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.10.005
Slopen, N., Fitzmaurice, G., Williams, D. R., & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Poverty, food insecurity, and the behavior for childhood internalizing and externalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5), 444–452. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-201005000-00005
Steenhoff, T., Tharner, A., & Vaever, M. S. (2021). Internalizing and externalizing problems in preschool children: The role of mothers' and fathers' observed parenting behavior in a well-resourced sample. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 62(3), 374–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12724
Ştefan, C. A., & Avram, J. (2017). Investigating direct and indirect effects of attachment on internalizing and externalizing problems through emotion regulation in a cross-sectional study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(8), 2311–2323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0723-7
Tao, S., Lau, E. Y., & Hong, H. (2023). Parents' orientation to emotion, children's emotion regulation and internalizing behavior: A longitudinal mediation model. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 32(3), 812–823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02319-9
Thomas, J. C., Letourneau, N., Campbell, T. S., Tomfohr-Madsen, L., & Giesbrecht, G. F. (2017). Developmental origins of infant emotion regulation: Mediation by temperamental negativity and moderation by maternal sensitivity. Developmental Psychology, 53(4), 611–628. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000279
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), The development of emotion regulation: Behavioral and biological considerations. Monographs of the society for research in child development (pp. 25–52). University of Chicago Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.2307/1166137
Tibshirani, R. J., & Efron, B. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap. Chapman and Hall.
Williford, A. P., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Predicting change in parenting stress across early childhood: Child and maternal factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(2), 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9082-3
Wittig, S. M., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2019a). Emerging behavior problems: Bidirectional relations between maternal and paternal parenting styles with infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 55(6), 1199–1210. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000707
Wittig, S. M., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2019b). Interaction between maternal and paternal parenting styles with infant temperament in emerging behavior problems. Infant Behavior and Development, 57, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2019.04.005
Wood, J. J., Cowan, P. A., & Baker, B. L. (2002). Behavior problems and peer rejection in preschool boys and girls. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(1), 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221320209597969
Wu, H. Y., Lin, W. Y., Huang, J. P., Lin, C. L., Au, H. K., Lo, Y. C., Chien, L. C., Chao, H. J., & Chen, Y. H. (2023). Effects of mobile device use on emotional and behavioral problems in the CBCL among preschoolers: Do shared reading and maternal depression matter. Plos One, 18(7), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/joural.pone.0280319
Yagmurlu, B., & Altan, O. (2010). Maternal socialization and child temperament as predictors of emotion regulation in Turkish preschoolers. Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 19(3), 275–296. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.646
Yap, M. B., Allen, N. B., O'Shea, M., Di Parsia, P., Simmons, J. G., & Sheeber, L. (2011). Early adolescents' temperament, emotion regulation during mother-child interactions, and depressive symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 267–282. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000787
Younger, A. J., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham, J. E. (1985). Age-related changes in children's perceptions of aggression and withdrawal in their peers. Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 70–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.21.1.70
Yule, K., Murphy, C., & Grych, J. (2020). Adaptive functioning in high-risk preschoolers: Caregiver practices beyond parental warmth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(1), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01660-w
Zhu, J., Ooi, L. L., Wu, M., Li, Y., Coplan, R. J., & Cao, Y. (2021). Exploring the links between unsociability, parenting behaviors, and socio-emotional functioning in young children in suburban China. Early Education and Development, 32(7), 963–980. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1821538