臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

過去的研究指出，三到四歲的幼兒若語言發展遲緩，其詞彙量可能呈現偏低的現象。除了詞彙量的發展外，研究也關注語言遲緩幼兒在語言的「質」方面，是否與一般發展幼兒有所不同。一般發展的幼兒在詞彙發展過程中表現出「名詞偏好（Noun bias）」的趨勢，即表達性詞彙的種類以名詞為主；相較之下，由於學習和語言特性，兒童對於動詞的學習比名詞學習更困難。與英語相比，華語是「動詞友善」的語言。因為從兒童的語言環境來看，華語比英語提供兒童更多的動詞輸入。此外，語言發展障礙兒童的研究，較少聚焦動詞的發展；而動詞的學習與語法能力高度相關。相較於正常發展的兒童，語言發展遲緩的幼兒在表達性詞彙和語法方面顯現出明顯的缺損。這是否是因為他們缺乏有效率的新詞學習機制？換言之，語言發展遲緩幼兒除了「名詞」學習困難，是否也同時出現「動詞」學習困擾？為了探討此議題，本研究利用新詞學習作業檢視語言發展遲緩幼兒的新詞學習機制，同時利用眼動軌跡技術來探究兒童的新詞即時學習歷程。
本研究對象為三到四歲之幼兒，包括了語言發展遲緩組（n = 25; 平均年紀 = 46 個月）和年齡配對的對照組 （n = 26; 平均年紀 = 48 個月）。新詞學習作業分為「新詞-指涉物配對」和「新詞記憶提取」兩個階段—分別檢驗幼兒是否能在學習新詞後，立即正確選擇與新詞配對之指涉物（即，名詞學習情境）或動作（即，動詞學習情境）。以及新詞學習五分鐘後，是否能記住該詞彙？本研究利用手指指認詞彙圖片之正確率、與眼動指標「注視目標新詞比例（Target-looking ratio）」及「目光移動到目標詞的時間（Latency）」，來評估幼兒的詞彙學習表現。
結果發現語言發展遲緩幼兒和一般發展幼兒，在新詞學習作業的兩個階段（新詞指涉物配對、新詞記憶）皆存在顯著的差異。另外，動詞和名詞學習也有顯著的詞類差異，兩組幼兒在動詞學習的表現皆較名詞來得差。此外，僅有動詞學習相關的指認表現與眼動指標有中度相關。階層性回歸模型結果顯示，在控制年齡和非語言智力後，兩組幼兒的動詞目標注視比例，可以預測新詞學習作業中動詞指涉物配對的正確率；而語言發展遲緩組中，注視目標時長比例預測名詞在指涉物配對階段之新詞學習表現；動詞學習方面，注視目標時間比例和目光移動到目標物的時間，預測其指涉物配對階段之新詞學習表現。總結而言，本研究結果顯示語言遲緩幼兒名詞及動詞的學習歷程缺損，而且這些缺損影響新詞的學習表現。本研究結果也意涵動詞詞彙學習能力在提升語言障礙兒童語言能力之重要性，建議納入語言早期療育的目標。

Previous studies highlighted word learning deficits in children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), focusing predominantly on noun learning (Golinkoff et al.,1992, Horst & Samuelson, 2008). However, given the ambiguity of verb-referent mapping, children often face more significant challenges in acquiring novel verbs compared to nouns (Gentner, 1982, 2006). Mandarin, renowned for its verb-friendly structure, raises questions about whether its argument-dropping feature facilitates verb learning in young children. Studies indicate that Mandarin-speaking toddlers exhibit a higher proportion of verbs in their lexicon, underscoring the significance of understanding the complexities of verb learning during early language development (Tardif et al., 1996). Addressing this gap on verb learning in DLD children, this study explored word learning differences between children with DLD (n = 25; M age = 46 months) and age-matched typically developing (TD) (n = 26; M age = 48 months) children, focusing on acquiring nouns and verbs across various phases of word learning. The word-learning experiment of this study integrated referential selection and new-word retention tasks with eye-tracking and picture pointing measures to assess word learning processes at three phases: training, word selection, and retention. Results reveal significant group differences in novel word learning between TD and DLD children, with consistent challenges observed across the word-referent selection and retention phases. A marked discrepancy in word classes emerges, indicating lower accuracy in verb learning than noun learning. Furthermore, results indicate moderate correlations between gaze patterns and picture pointing accuracy, particularly in verb conditions after controlling for age and nonverbal IQ. Specifically, a higher target-looking ratio during word-referent mapping was associated with more accurate pointing in both word-referent mapping and word retention phases. Hierarchical regression models of the whole sample further indicated that the target-looking ratio was a significant predictor of novel verb learning, particularly during the word-referent selection phase. For the DLD group, results of regression model revealed intriguing findings: latency emerged as a significant predictor of pointing accuracy during the word-referent selection phase for noun learning, while the target-looking ratio significantly accounted for the variance of verb learning. This indicated that the gaze duration on the target predicted picture-pointing accuracy in word-referent mapping phase among children with DLD, a pattern not observed in the TD group. This study offers valuable insights into word learning mechanisms in children with DLD, particularly emphasizing the challenges of learning novel verbs. Results of this study implicated that early verb word learning abilities would be vital in predicting language development in children with DLD and suggested that verb learning would be included in the early intervention program to better alleviate the language-learning difficulties in children with DLD.

Table of Contents
Introduction 1
1.The Mechanisms of Word Learning 5
2. Word Learning in Children with Language Impairment or Delay 9
3. Noun vs. Verb Learning: Greater Challenges in Learning Verbs 16
4. Exploring Word Learning Processes through Eye Gazes 20
5. Gaze Patterns in Word Learning Among Children with DLD 24
Method 30
Participants 30
Word Learning Task 32
Procedure 43
Data Analysis 44
Results 50
Novel Word Learning Performance 50
Additional Analysis: Distractor Effects 56
Links between Eye-tracking and Behavioral Pointing 60
Discussion 64
1.Verb vs. Noun Learning 65
2.Word Learning Challenges of Children with DLD 67
3.Word Learning Measures: Picture Pointing vs. Gazes Patterns 69
4.The Predictive Power of Gaze Patterns in Children with DLD 71
Limitations and Future Directions 74
Reference 75
Appendices 84
Appendix 1 Vocabulary List 84
Appendix 2 Word Learning Study Protocol 85
Appendix 3 Instruction PPT in Word Learning Task 88

Reference
呂信慧、曹峰銘（2018）:〈遲語兒幼兒期至學齡前期的語言發展型態:兩年縱貫研究〉。 《教育心理學報》，49，611–636。[Lu, H.-H., & Tsao, F.-M. (2018). Late-talking children’s language development pattern in the early childhood: A longitudinal study for two years. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 49, 611–636.] https://doi.org/10.6251/BEP.201806_49(4).0005
陳昱君（2012）：學齡前特定型語言障礙兒童新詞學習與音韻處理能力之探究。國立台灣師範大學特殊教育學系研究所博士論文。[Chen, Y. C. (2012). Novel word learning and phonological processing abilities in preschool children with specific language impairment. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.]
陳昱君、劉惠美（2014）:〈論一般發展的特定型語言障礙兒童音韻處理和詞彙能力的關係〉。 《臺北教育大學語文集刊》，25，27–64。[Chen, Y.-C., & Liu, H.-M. (2014). Relationship between phonological processing abilities and vocabulary development in preschool children with and without specific language impairment. Journal of Language and Literature Studies, 25, 27–64.]
劉惠美、林郡儀（2017）:〈華語遲語幼兒及典型語言發展幼兒的表達性詞彙發展〉。《特殊教育學刊》，42(1)，27–50。[Liu, H.-M., & Lin, C.-Y. (2017). Expressive mandarin vocabulary development in late talkers and typical language development children. Bulletin of Special Education, 42(1), 27–50.] https://doi.org/10.6172/BSE.2017.03.4201002
劉惠美、林郡儀（2017）:〈華語遲語幼兒及典型語言發展幼兒的表達性詞彙發展〉。《特殊教育學刊》，42(1)，27–50。[Liu, H.-M., & Lin, C.-Y. (2017). Expressive mandarin vocabulary development in late talkers and typical language development children. Bulletin of Special Education, 42(1), 27–50.] https://doi.org/10.6172/BSE.2017.03.4201002
劉惠美、曹峰銘（2010）:《華語嬰幼兒溝通發展量表(臺灣版)》。心理出版社。[Lui, H.- M., & Tsao, F.-M. (2010). Mandarin-Chinese communicative development inventory (Taiwan). Psychological Publishing.]
劉惠美、陳昱君（2015）:〈華語嬰幼兒表達性詞彙的語意內容及詞類組成之發展〉。《教育心理學報》，47，217–242。[Liu, H.-M., & Chen, Y.-C. (2015). Developmental changes in the content and composition of early expressive vocabulary in Mandarin-speaking infants and toddlers. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 47, 217–242.] https://doi.org/10.6251/BEP.20150205
鄭靜宜（2017）:〈華語學前兒童語音的習得〉。《華語文教學研究》，14(3)，109–136。[Jeng, J.-Y. (2017). The speech acquisition of Mandarin-speaking preschool children. Journal of Chinese Language Teaching, 14(3), 109–136.]
賴沛雨、劉惠美（2022）:〈華語幼兒之新詞學習與表達性詞彙的關係〉。 《教育心理學報》，53(4)，801–826。[Lai, P.-Y& Lu, H.-H (2018). Relationship between Fast Mapping, Retention, and Expressive Vocabulary in Mandarin-Speaking Toddlers. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 53(4), 801–826.] https://doi.org/10.6251/BEP.202206_53(4).0002
騫心曼（2006）:〈3-6 歲台灣特定型語言障礙兒童的辭彙習得-以圖片命名作業為例〉。中原大學心理學研究所碩士論文（未出版）。
Andreu, L., Sanz-Torrent, M., & Guardia-Olmos, J. (2012). Auditory word recognition of nouns and verbs in children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI). Journal of communication disorders, 45(1), 20-34.
Baldwin, D. A. (1989). Priorities in children''s expectations about object label reference: Form over color. Child development, 1291-1306.
Bion, R. A., Borovsky, A., & Fernald, A. (2013). Fast mapping, slow learning: Disambiguation of novel word–object mappings in relation to vocabulary learning at 18, 24, and 30 months. Cognition, 126(1), 39-53.
Bornstein, M. H., Cote, L. R., Maital, S., Painter, K., Park, S. Y., Pascual, L., . . . Vyt, A. (2004). Cross‐linguistic analysis of vocabulary in young children: Spanish, Dutch, French, Hebrew, Italian, Korean, and American English. Child development, 75(4), 1115-1139.
Childers, J. B., & Tomasello, M. (2006). 12 Are Nouns Easier to Learn Than Verbs? Three Experimental Studies. Action meets word: How children learn verbs, 311.
Childers, J. B., Parrish, R., Olson, C. V., Burch, C., Fung, G., & McIntyre, K. P. (2016). Early verb learning: How do children learn how to compare events? Journal of Cognition and Development, 17(1), 41-66.
Childers, J. B., Porter, B., Dolan, M., Whitehead, C. B., & McIntyre, K. P. (2020). Does children’s visual attention to specific objects affect their verb learning? First Language, 40(1), 21-40.
Colunga, E., & Sims, C. E. (2017). Not only size matters: Early‐talker and late‐talker vocabularies support different word‐learning biases in babies and networks. Cognitive science, 41, 73-95.
Colunga, E., & Sims, C. E. (2017). Not only size matters: Early‐talker and late‐talker vocabularies support different word‐learning biases in babies and networks. Cognitive science, 41, 73-95.
de Carvalho, A., Babineau, M., Trueswell, J. C., Waxman, S. R., & Christophe, A. (2019). Studying the real-time interpretation of novel noun and verb meanings in young children. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 274.
Desmarais, C., Sylvestre, A., Meyer, F., Bairati, I., & Rouleau, N. (2008). Systematic review of the literature on characteristics of late‐talking toddlers. International journal of language & communication disorders, 43(4), 361-389.
Ellis, E. M., Borovsky, A., Elman, J. L., & Evans, J. L. (2015). Novel word learning: An eye-tracking study. Are 18-month-old late talkers really different from their typical peers? Journal of communication disorders, 58, 143-157.
Fernald, A., Pinto, J. P., Swingley, D., Weinberg, A., & McRoberts, G. W. (1998). Rapid gains in speed of verbal processing by infants in the 2nd year. Psychological science, 9(3), 228-231.
Gelman, S. A., & Ebeling, K. S. (1998). Shape and representational status in children''s early naming. Cognition, 66(2), B35-B47.
Gentner, D. (2006). Why verbs are hard to learn. Action meets word: How children learn verbs, 544-564.
Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Cauley, K. M., & Gordon, L. (1987). The eyes have it: Lexical and syntactic comprehension in a new paradigm. Journal of child language, 14(1), 23-45.
Gray, S., & Brinkley, S. (2011). Fast mapping and word learning by preschoolers with specific language impairment in a supported learning context: Effect of encoding cues, phonotactic probability, and object familiarity.
Haryu, E., Imai, M., Okada, H., Li, L., Meyer, M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2005). Noun bias in Chinese children: Novel noun and verb learning in Chinese, Japanese, and English preschoolers. In Proceedings of the Boston Child Language meetings.
Hidaka, S., & Smith, L. B. (2011). Packing: a geometric analysis of feature selection and category formation. Cognitive Systems Research, 12(1), 1-18.
Hoff, E., & Naigles, L. (2002). How children use input to acquire a lexicon. Child development, 73(2), 418-433.
Horst, J. S., & Samuelson, L. K. (2008). Fast mapping but poor retention by 24‐month‐old infants. Infancy, 13(2), 128-157.
Horvath, S., Rescorla, L., & Arunachalam, S. (2019). The syntactic and semantic features of two-year-olds’ verb vocabularies: A comparison of typically developing children and late talkers. Journal of Child Language, 46(3), 409-432.
Hupp, J. M. (2008). Demonstration of the shape bias without label extension. Infant Behavior and Development, 31(3), 511-517.
Imai, M., Li, L., Haryu, E., Okada, H., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Shigematsu, J. (2008). Novel noun and verb learning in Chinese‐, English‐, and Japanese‐speaking children. Child development, 79(4), 979-1000.
Jackson, E., Leitao, S., & Claessen, M. (2016). The relationship between phonological short‐term memory, receptive vocabulary, and fast mapping in children with specific language impairment. International journal of language & communication disorders, 51(1), 61-73.
Kalashnikova, M., Mattock, K., & Monaghan, P. (2016). Flexible use of mutual exclusivity in word learning. Language Learning and Development, 12(1), 79-91.
Kauschke, C., Lee, H. W., & Pae, S. (2007). Similarities and variation in noun and verb acquisition: A crosslinguistic study of children learning German, Korean, and Turkish. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22(7), 1045-1072.
Kim, M., McGregor, K. K., & Thompson, C. K. (2000). Early lexical development in English- and Korean-speaking children: Language-general and language-specific patterns. Journal of Child Language, 27, 225-254.
Konishi, H., Stahl, A. E., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2016). Individual differences in nonlinguistic event categorization predict later motion verb comprehension. Journal of experimental child psychology, 151, 18-32.
Kucker, S. C., & Seidler, E. (2023). The timescales of word learning in children with language delays: In-the-moment mapping, retention, and generalization. Journal of child language, 50(2), 245-273.
Kucker, S. C., McMurray, B., & Samuelson, L. K. (2015). Slowing down fast mapping: Redefining the dynamics of word learning. Child Development Perspectives, 9(2), 74-78.
Leddon, E., Arunachalam, S., Waxman, S. R., Fu, X., Gong, H., & Wang, L. (2011). Noun and verb learning in Mandarin-acquiring 24-month-olds. Online Proceedings Supplement of the 35th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development.
Leonard, L. B., Camarata, S., Rowan, L. E., & Chapman, K. (1982). The communicative functions of lexical usage by language impaired children. Applied psycholinguistics, 3(2), 109-125.
Liu, H. M., Tsao, F. M., Lin, C. Y., Rost, G., & Guo, L. Y. (2023). Noun and Verb Lexicons Differentially Predict Later Grammatical Development in Mandarin-Speaking Children with and Without Late Language Emergence. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 66(10), 3940-3953.
MacRoy-Higgins, M., & Dalton, K. P. (2015). The influence of phonotactic probability on nonword repetition and fast mapping in 3-year-olds with a history of expressive language delay. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(6), 1773-1779.
Macroy-Higgins, M., & Montemarano, E. A. (2016). Attention and word learning in toddlers who are late talkers. Journal of child language, 43(5), 1020-1037.
Maguire, M. J., Hennon, E. A., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Slutzky, C. B., & Sootsman, J. (2002). Mapping words to actions and events: How do 18-month-olds learn a verb. Proceedings of the 27th annual Boston University conference on language,
Markman, E. M., & Wachtel, G. F. (1988). Children''s use of mutual exclusivity to constrain the meanings of words. Cognitive psychology, 20(2), 121-157.
McGregor, K. K., Friedman, R. M., Reilly, R. M., & Newman, R. M. (2002). Semantic representation and naming in young children.
Rescorla, L., Mirak, J., & Singh, L. (2000). Vocabulary growth in late talkers: Lexical development from 2; 0 to 3; 0. Journal of child language, 27(2), 293-311.
Rescorla, L., Roberts, J., & Dahlsgaard, K. (1997). Late talkers at 2: Outcome at age 3. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40(3), 556-566.
Rice, M. L., Buhr, J. C., & Nemeth, M. (1990). Fast mapping word-learning abilities of language-delayed preschoolers. Journal of Speech and Hearing disorders, 55(1), 33-42.
Roseberry, S., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Parish‐Morris, J., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2009). Live action: Can young children learn verbs from video? Child development, 80(5), 1360-1375.
Rujas, I., Casla, M., Mariscal, S., Lázaro López-Villaseñor, M., & Murillo Sanz, E. (2019). Effects of grammatical category and morphology on fast mapping in typically developing and late talking toddlers. First Language, 39(3), 249-280.
Stella, M., Beckage, N. M., & Brede, M. (2017). Multiplex lexical networks reveal patterns in early word acquisition in children. Scientific reports, 7(1), 46730.
Valleau, M. J., Konishi, H., Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Arunachalam, S. (2018). An eye-tracking study of receptive verb knowledge in toddlers. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(12), 2917-2933.
van Alphen, P., Brouwer, S., Davids, N., Dijkstra, E., & Fikkert, P. (2021). Word recognition and word prediction in preschoolers with (a suspicion of) a developmental language disorder: Evidence from eye tracking. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(6), 2005-2021.
Waxman, S. R., & Kosowski, T. D. (1990). Nouns mark category relations: Toddlers'' and preschoolers'' word‐learning biases. Child development, 61(5), 1461-1473.
Weismer, S. E., Venker, C. E., Evans, J. L., & Moyle, M. J. (2013). Fast mapping in late-talking toddlers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(1), 69-89.
Yim, D., Yang, Y., Choi, J., Han, J., Chae, M., Yim, D., ... & Chae, M. (2021). Differences in early vocabulary development from 18-36-month-old late talkers and typically developing toddlers of matched age and expressive vocabulary levels. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 26(2), 274-283.
Yu, C., & Smith, L. B. (2011). What you learn is what you see: using eye movements to study infant cross‐situational word learning. Developmental Science, 14(2), 165-180.