臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

白鼻心生性容易緊張，若感受到威脅時，常會表現出攻擊行為。因其四肢粗壯具有利爪且咬合力大，因此常成為臨床診療上之阻礙，若進行需碰觸到白鼻心的檢查，對醫療人員具有一定程度之風險，因此選擇適當的鎮靜劑能使醫療處理的過程更為順利，且同時減少動物緊迫，使得雙方皆能獲得最大的安全。
Xylazine（XYL）和dexmedetomidine（DEX）皆為α2腎上腺素性受體致效劑的一種，這類的鎮靜安神藥物時常用來做為誘導鎮靜，並有止痛作用，皆有拮抗劑可迅速反轉鎮靜之效果可使動物迅速恢復。XYL在過去廣泛地被獸醫應用在各種不同的物種作為鎮靜和止痛之用，相關研究甚多；DEX則為一具有高度選擇性和特異性的α2腎上腺素性受體致效劑，近年來在臨床上常被應用於犬貓。有關白鼻心麻醉的研究很少，本研究探討單獨使用兩種不同的α2腎上腺素性受體致效劑對白鼻心之鎮靜作用和止痛效果，以及使用atipamezole（ATI）反轉DEX之效果。
本研究共使用18隻白鼻心進行實驗，選擇的劑量組分別為每公斤體重2、4和8 mg的XYL，以及0.01、0.02和0.04 mg的DEX，於後肢肌肉注射實驗藥物後分別監控其基礎生理值以及各項反射的強弱並予以紀錄。結果顯示僅有DEX 0.02和DEX 0.04 mg/kg這兩組劑量組能使全數（6/6）白鼻心成功進入鎮靜狀態，而進入鎮靜期的時間於六組之間皆沒有顯著差異；鎮靜持續時間則隨劑量之提高而延長，且各劑量組之心搏和呼吸速率皆會下降，體溫則隨鎮靜時間之延長而逐漸降低。在XYL和DEX的比較上，DEX較能使白鼻心維持穩定的鎮靜狀態。探討拮抗劑效果的實驗先以每公斤體重0.04 mg的DEX鎮靜白鼻心後，於實驗的第30分鐘三組再分別肌肉注射saline 0.04 ml/kg、ATI 0.04 mg/kg及ATI 0.2 mg/kg，三組白鼻心分別於注射後77.5、28.5及7分鐘恢復，顯示不論是注射低劑量或高劑量之ATI，皆能顯著使白鼻心之恢復時間縮短，而較高之劑量則更能縮短恢復時間，有助於於臨床診療結束時使動物快速恢復正常。
綜合上述，我們知道DEX相較於XYL有更穩定的鎮靜效果，而使用DEX 0.02 mg/kg或 0.04 mg/kg時可以成功地使白鼻心進入鎮靜狀態，當臨床上需要對白鼻心進行鎮靜檢查時，可以評估所需鎮靜時間的長短來選擇不同的劑量，而於醫療處理結束後可給予ATI結束鎮靜，使動物迅速恢復正常。

Formosan gem-faced civet (Paguma larvata taivana) has the nature of being tense and is prone to be aggressive under menace. The attack behavior could make a clinical crux for the practitioner if physical examination is intended. To strike for a mutual beneficial resolution on both sides of the animal and staff, administration of appropriate sedatives will ensure an uneventful procedure.
Xylazine (XYL) and dexmedetomidine (DEX) are α2 adrenergic agonists, which are used for induction for their sedative and analgesic and antagonists are available to reverse the effect and speed the recovery. XYL was commonly used for its sedative and analgesic in varieties of species, which related studies are many. DEX is a highly selective and specific α2 adrenergic agonist and its clinical use in dogs and cats is more often in recent years. Yet, studies of anesthetics in Formosan gem-faced civets are rarely documented. This study is intended to observe the sedative and analgesic effects of the sole administration of two different α2 adrenergic agonists, respectively, in formosan gem-faced civets and the effect of atipamezole (ATI) to reverse dexmedetomidine.
The experiment group was formed with 18 formosan gem-faced civets. The treated group of XYL was at doses of 2, 4 and 8 mg/kg and so was the treated group of DEX at doses of 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg/kg via the route of intramuscular injection on the hind limb. The vitals and intensity of the reflex were monitored and recorded. As the results presented the groups of DEX 0.02 and DEX 0.04 mg/kg were the only two dosages that made the whole number of the treated animals (6/6) onset steady sedation and no obvious difference was noted in these six groups. The period of sedation sustained longer at higher doses; the heart rate and respiratory rate were decreased and the body temperature declined gradually over sedation. Comparing XYL and DEX, the later proved to maintain a steady sedation better in formosan gem-faced civets. In the study of antagonist reversal, 0.04 mg/kg of DEX was administered to reach the sedation, and three groups of testing animals were treated with IM injection of 0.04 ml/kg of saline, 0.04 mg/kg of ATI and 0.2 mg/kg of ATI, 30 minutes after the treatment, respectively. The treated animals recovered in 77.5, 28.5 and 7 minutes after the injection, which revealed that ATI dramatically speeded the recovery and the higher dose contributed to the less time, which advantages the clinical practice.
In conclusion, DEX provided more stable sedative effects than XYL and the administration of 0.02 or 0.04 mg/kg of DEX succeeded to achieve such goal uneventfully in formosan gem-faced civets. Previous assessment of the time needed for procedures determined what dose is to be administered when sedation is considered for clinical examination of formosan gem-faced civets. After the procedure, the animals can be restored to their normal presedation demeanour effectively and reliably with administration of ATI.

摘要 i
Abstract ii
目次 iv
表目次 vii
圖目次 viii
第一章 緒言 1
第二章 文獻探討 2
第一節 白鼻心介紹 2
一、 科學分類 2
二、 體型特徵 2
三、 食性 2
四、 棲地類型 2
五、 生態習性 3
第二節 應用於野生動物之鎮靜與麻醉 3
一、 鎮靜前的準備 3
二、 鎮靜前的評估 3
三、 應用於白鼻心之麻醉 4
四、 應用於其他靈貓科動物之麻醉 4
五、 應用於其他食肉目野生動物之麻醉 4
第三節 α2型腎上腺素性受體致效劑 6
一、 簡介 6
二、 Xylazine 8
（一） 簡介 8
（二） 藥理作用 9
（三） 應用 15
三、 Dexmedetomidine 17
（一） 簡介 17
（二） 藥理作用 17
（三） 應用 18
第四節 α2型腎上腺素性受體拮抗劑 19
一、 簡介 19
二、 Atipamezole 20
第三章 材料與方法 21
第一節 實驗設計 21
一、 實驗動物 21
二、 實驗藥物 21
三、 實驗前準備（前準備、前置作業） 22
四、 藥物注射方式 23
五、 鎮靜期的評估 24
(一) 測量方法 24
(二) 基礎生理值之監控 24
(三) 反射項目之測量 25
(四) 評分標準 26
(五) 鎮靜指數和止痛指數 26
(六) 鎮靜分期的定義 26
(七) 統計分析方法 27
第二節 評估單獨使用dexmedetomidine或xylazine於白鼻心之鎮靜效果 27
一、 實驗目的 27
二、 實驗步驟 27
第三節 評估不同劑量atipamezole對白鼻心定量dexmedetomidine之拮抗效果 28
一、 實驗目的 28
二、 實驗步驟 28
第四章 結果 29
第一節 評估單獨使用dexmedetomidine或xylazine於白鼻心之鎮靜效果 29
一、 實驗動物之體重 29
二、 鎮靜分期時間 30
(一) Xylazine之鎮靜分期時間 30
(二) Dexmedetomidine之鎮靜分期時間 31
三、 各項反射反應時間 32
(一) Xylazine之各項反射反應時間 32
(二) dexmedetomidine之各項反射反應時間 33
四、 比較dexmedetomidine與xylazine各劑量組成功鎮靜之頭數 34
五、 心搏速率隨時間之變化 35
(一) Xylazine之心搏速率 35
(二) Dexmedetomidine之心搏速率 36
六、 呼吸速率隨時間之變化 37
(一) Xylazine之呼吸速率 37
(二) Dexmedetomidine之呼吸速率 38
七、 體溫隨時間之變化 39
(一) Xylazine之體溫 39
(二) Dexmedetomidine之體溫 40
八、 鎮靜指數隨時間之變化 41
(一) Xylazine之鎮靜指數 41
(二) Dexmedetomidine之鎮靜指數 42
九、 止痛指數隨時間之變化 43
(一) Xylazine之止痛指數 43
(二) Dexmedetomidine之止痛指數 44
第二節 評估不同劑量atipamezole對白鼻心定量dexmedetomidine之拮抗效果 45
一、 實驗動物之體重 45
二、 比較未進行注射及注射slaine兩組之間恢復時間之差異 45
三、 各注射藥物劑量組之間恢復時間之差異 46
四、 各劑量組之間呼吸速率之變化 46
五、 各注射藥物劑量組之間心搏速率之變化 48
第五章 討論 48
參考文獻 53

1.李珊珊。Tiletamine-zolazepam與Tiletamine-Zolazepam-Medetomidine 於保定黃鼠狼（Mustela sibirica davidiana）之應用研究。碩士論文。國立中興大學獸醫學系。台中市，中華民國。2008。
2.楊志寰、陳慶宗、董光中、李衛民、徐慶霖。台灣白鼻狸貓之Xylazine-Ketamine麻醉與Yohimbine之拮抗作用。中華民國獸醫學會雜誌 24： 264-271， 1998。
3.鄭世嘉。臺灣特有亞種白鼻心之生物學研究。碩士論文。國立師範大學生物研究所。台北市，中華民國。1991。
4.鄭錫奇、姚正得、許富雄、陳元龍、林德恩、賴肅如等。台灣保育類野生動物圖鑑，再版。農委會特有生物中心。南投縣集集鎮，中華民國。62-63，2007。
5.Addison EM, Kolenosky GB. Use of Ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride to immobilize black bears (Ursus americanus). J Wildl Dis 15: 253-8, 1979.
6.Antonaccio MJ, Robson RD, Kerwin L. Evidence for increased vagal tone and enhancement of baroreceptor reflex activity after xylazine (2-(2,6-dimethylphenylamino)-4-H-5,6-dihydro-1,3-thiazine) in anesthetized dogs. Eur J Pharmacol 23: 311-316, 1973.
7.Aziz MA, Martin RJ. Alpha agonist and local anesthetic properties of xylazine. Zentralbl Veterinarmed A 25: 181-188, 1978.
8.Bakris GL, Cross PD, Hammarstem JE. The use of clonidine for management of opiate abstinence in a chronic pain patient. Mayo Clin Proc 57: 657-660, 1982.
9.Bartram DH, Diamond MJ, Tute AS, Trafford AW, Jones RS. Use of medetomidine and butorphanol for sedation in dogs. J Small Anim Pract 35: 495-498, 1994.
10.Bennett RC, Steffey EP, Kollias-Baker C, et al. Influence of morphine sulfate on the halothane sparing effect of xylazine hydrochloride in horses. Am J Vet Res 65: 519-526, 2004.
11.Benson GJ, Thurmon JC, Neff-Davis CA, et al. Effect of xylazine hydrochloride upon plasma glucose and serum insulin concentrations in adult pointer dogs. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 20: 791-794, 1984.
12.Branson К, Ко JCH, Tranquilli WJ, Thurmon JC. Duration of analgesia induced by epidurally administered morphine and medetomidine in dogs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 16: 369-372, 1993.
13.Broadstone RV, Gray PR, Robinson NE, et al. Effects of xylazine on airway function in ponies with recurrent airway obstruction. Am J Vet Res 53: 1813-1817, 1992.

14.Browning S, Lawrence D, Livingston, Morris B. Interactions of drugs active at opiate receptors and drugs active at alpha 2- receptors on various test systems. Br J Pharmacol 11:487-191, 1982.
15.Bueno AC, Cornick-Seahorn J, Seahorn TL, et al. Cardiopulmonary and sedative effects of intravenous administration of low doses of medetomidine and xylazine to adult horses. Am J Vet Res 60: 1371-1376, 1999.
16.Bueno AC, Cornick-Seahorn J, Seahorn TL, et al. Cardiopulmonary and sedative effects of intravenous administration of low doses of medetomidine and xylazine to adult horses. Am J Vet Res 60: 1371-1376, 1999.
17.Burke JA, Potter DE. The ocular effects of xylazine in rabbits, cats, and monkeys. J Ocul Pharmacol 2: 9-21, 1986.
18.Campagnol D, Teixeira Neto FJ, Giordano T, Ferreira TH, Monteiro ER. Effects of epidural administration of dexmedetomidine on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane in dogs. Am J Vet Res 68: 1308-1318, 2007.
19.Campbell KB, Klavano PA, Richardson P, et al. Hemodynamic effects of xylazine in the calf. Am J Vet Res 40: 1777-1780, 1979.
20.Cattet MR, Caulkett NA, Lunn NJ. Anesthesia of grizzly bears using xylazine-zolazepam-tiletamine or zolazepam-tiletamine. J Wildl Dis 39: 655-664, 2003.
21.Cattet MR, Obbard ME. Use of hyaluronidase to improve chemical immobilization of free-ranging polar bears (Ursus maritimus). J Wildl Dis 46: 246-250, 2010.
22.Chamberlain PL, Brynes SD. The regulatory status of xylazine for use in food-producing animals in the United States. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 21: 322-329, 1998.
23.Clough DP, Hatton R. Hypotensive and sedative effects of alphaadrenoceptor agonists: Relationship to alpha 1- and alpha 2- adrenoceptor potency. Br J Pharmacol 73: 595-604, 1981.
24.Duke T, Komulainen A, Remedios A, Cribb PH. The analgesic effects of administering fentanyl or medetomidine in the lumbosacral epidural space of cats. J Vet Surg 23: 143-148, 1994.
25.England GC, Clarke KW, Goossens L. A comparison of the sedative effects of three alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonists (romifidine, detomidine and xylazine) in the horse. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 15: 194-201, 1992.
26.Fisher PG. Standards of Care in the 21st Century:The Rabbit. J Exotic Pet Med 19: 22-35, 2010.
27.Fuentes VO. Sudden death in a stallion after xylazine medication. Vet Rec 102: 106, 1978.
28.Garcia-Villar R, Toutain PL, Alvineric M, Ruckebusch Y. The pharmacokinetics of xylazine hydrochloride: An interspecific study. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 4: 87-92, 1981.
29.Granholm M, McKusick BC, Westerholm FC, Aspegren JC. Evaluation of the clinical efficacy and safety of intramuscular and intravenous doses of dexmedetomidine and medetomidine in dogs and their reversal with atipamezole. Vet Rec 160: 891-897, 2007.
30.Granholm M, McKusick BC, Westerholm FC, Aspegren JC. Evaluation of the clinical efficacy and safety of dexmedetomidine or medetomidine in cats and their reversal with atipamezole. Vet Anaesth Analg 33: 214-223, 2006.
31.Greene SA, Thurmon JC. Xylazine: A review of its pharmacology and use in veterinary medicine. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 11: 295-313, 1988.
32.Haskins SC, Patz JD, Farver ТВ. Xylazine and xylazine-ketamine in dogs. Am J Vet Res 47: 636-641, 1986.
33.Hatch RC, Kitzman JV, Zahner JM, et al. Comparison of five preanesthetic medicaments in thiopental-anesthetized cats: Antagonism by selected compounds. Am J Vet Res 45: 2322-2327, 1984.
34.Hatch RC, Wilson RC, Jernigan AD, et al. Reversal of thiopentalinduced anesthesia by 4-aminopyridine, yohimbine, and doxapram in dogs pretreated with xylazine or acepromazine. Am J Vet Res 46: 1473-1478, 1985.
35.Hikasa Y, Ogasawara S, Takase K. Alpha adrenoceptor subtypes involved in the emetic action in dogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 261: 746-754, 1992.
36.Hoffman PE. Clinical evaluation of xylazine as a chemical restraining agent, sedative, and analgesic in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 164: 42-15, 1974.
37.Hsu WH, Betts DM, Lee P. Xylazine-induced mydriasis: Possible involvement of a central postsynaptic regulation of parasympathetic tone. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 4: 209-214, 1981.
38.Hsu WH, Lee P, Betts DM. Xylazine-induced mydriasis in rats and its antagonism by alpha-adrenergic blocking agents. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 4: 97-101, 1981.
39.Hsu WH, McNeel SV. Effect of yohimbine on xylazine-induced prolongation of gastrointestinal transit in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183: 297-300, 1983.
40.Hsu WH. Xylazine-induced depression and its antagonism by alpha adrenergic blocking agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 218: 188-192, 1981.
41.Hubbell JA, Muir WW. Effect of xylazine hydrochloride on canine splenic weight: An index of vascular capacity. Am J Vet Res 43: 2188-2192, 1982.
42.Jansson CC, Kukkonen JP, Na‥sman J et al. Protean agonism at a2A-adrenoceptors. Mol Pharmacol 53: 963-968, 1998.
43.Jansson CC, Marjama‥ki A, Luomala K et al. Coupling of human a2-adrenoceptor subtypes to regulation of cAMP production in transfected S115 cells. Eur J Pharmacol 266: 165-174, 1994.
44.Johnson CA, Beemsterboer JM, Gray PR, et al. Effects of various sedatives on air cystometry in dogs. Am J Vet Res 49: 1525-1528, 1988.
45.Jones RS. Epidural analgesia in the dog and cat. Vet J 161: 123-131, 2001.
46.Kalpravidh M, Lumb WV, Wright M , et al. Effects of butorphanol, flunixin, levorphanol, morphine, and xylazine in ponies. Am J Vet Res 45: 217-223, 1984.
47.Kerr DD, Jones EW, Huggins K, et al. Sedative and other effects of xylazine given intravenously to horses. Am J Vet Res 33: 525-532, 1972.
48.Kevin Eatwell. Options for analgesia and anaesthesia in reptiles. In Practice 32: 306-311, 2010.
49.Klein LV, Baetjer C. Preliminary report: Xylazine and morphine sedation in horses. Vet Anesthesiol 1: 2-6, 1974.
50.Klide AM, Calderwood HW, Soma LR. Cardiopulmonary effects of xylazine in dogs. Am J Vet Res 36: 931-935, 1975.
51.Ko JC, Berman AG. Anesthesia in shelter medicine. Top Companion Anim Med 25: 92-97, 2010.
52.Kolata RJ, Rawlings CA. Cardiopulmonary effects of intravenous xylazine. ketamine, and atropine in the dog. Am J Vet Res 43: 2196-2198, 1982.
53.Kuusela E, Raekallio M, Vaisanen M, Mykkanen K, Ropponen H, Vainio O. Comparison of medetomidine and dexmedetomidine as premedicants in dogs undergoing propofol-isoflurane anesthesia. Am J Vet Res 62: 1073-1080, 2001a.
54.Kuusela E, Vainio O, Kaistinen A, Kobylin S, Raekallio M. Sedative, analgesic, and cardiovascular effects of levomedetomidine alone and in combination with dexmedetomidine in dogs. Am J Vet Res 62: 616-621, 2001b.
55.Lavoie JP, Pascoe JR. Kurpershoek CJ. Effects of xylazine on ventilation in horses. Am J Vet Res 53: 916-920, 1992.
56.Lee J, Schweinsburg R, Kernan F, Haigh J. Immobilization of polar bears (Ursus maritimus, Phipps) with ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. J Wildl Dis 17: 331-6, 1981.
57.Lemke KA. Anticholinergics and Sedatives. In: Tranquilli WJ, Thurmon JC, Grimm KA, eds. Lumb & Jones'' Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. 4th ed. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa , 203-240, 2007.
58.Lennox AM. Care of the geriatric rabbit. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 13: 123-133, 2010.

59.Leppanen MK, McKusick BC, Granholm MM, Westerholm FC, Tulamo R, Short CE. Clinical efficacy and safety of dexmedetomidine and buprenorphine, butorphanol or diazepam for canine hip radiography. J Small Anim Pract 47: 663-669, 2006.
60.Lester GD, Bolton JR, Cullen LK, et al. Effects of general anesthesia on myoelectric activity of the intestine in horses. Am J Vet Res 53: 1553-1557, 1992.
61.Lewis JW, Liebeskind JC. Pain suppressive systems of the brain. Trends Pharmacol Sci 4: 73-75, 1983.
62.Martin PR, Ebert MH, Gordon EK, Linnoila M, Kopin IJ. Effects of clonidine on central and peripheral catecholamine metabolism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 35: 322-327, 1984.
63.McCashin FB, Gabel AA. Evaluation of xylazine as a sedative and preanesthetic agent in horses. Am J Vet Res 36: 1421-1429, 1975.
64.McNeel SV, Hsu WH. Xylazine-induced prolongation of gastrointestinal transit in dogs: Reversal by yohimbine and potentiation by doxapram. J Am Vet Med Assoc 185: 878-881, 1984.
65.Moens Y, Lanz F, Doherr MG, et al. A comparison of the antinociceptive effects of xylazine, detomidine and romifidine on experimental pain in horses. Vet Anaesth Analg 30: 183-190, 2003.
66.Monteiro ER, Campagnol D, Parrilha LR, Furlan LZ. Evaluation of cardiorespiratory effects of combinations of dexmedetomidine and atropine in cats. J Feline Med Surg 11: 783-792, 2009.
67.Monti JM. Catecholamines and the sleep-wake cycle. I. EEG and behavioral arousal. Life Sci 30: 1145-1157, 1982.
68.Moreau PM, Lees GE, Gross DR. Simultaneous cystometry and uroflowmetry (micturition study) for evaluation of the caudal part of the urinary tract in dogs: Reference values for healthy animals sedated with xylazine. Am J Vet Res 44: 1774-1781, 1983.
69.Mudappa D, Chellam R. Capture and immobilization of wild brown palm civets in Western Ghats. J Wildl Dis 37: 383-386, 2001.
70.Muir WW, Hubbell JAE. In: α2-Agonist. Handbook of veterinary anesthesia. 4th ed. Mosby Elsevier, St. Louis, USA, 36-38, 2007.
71.Muir WW, Robertson JT. Visceral analgesia: Effects of xylazine, butorphanol, meperidine, and pentazocine in horses. Am J Vet Res 46: 2081-2084, 1985
72.Murrell JC, Hellebrekers LJ. Medetomidine and dexmedetomidine: a review of cardiovascular effects and antinociceptive properties in the dog. Vet Anaesth Analg 32: 117-127, 2005.
73.Nakamura К, Hara S, Tomizawa N. The effects of medetomidine and xylazine on gastrointestinal motility and gastrin release in the dog. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 20: 290-295, 1997.
74.Nauka, Moskva, RUSSIE, FEDERATION DE. Capture and immobilization of asiatic black and brown bears for radio marking. Zoologičeskij žurnal 84: 1508-1515, 2005.
75.Page CD. Sloth bear immobilization with a ketamine-xylazine combination: reversal with yohimbine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189: 1050-1051, 1986.
76.Pascoe PJ, Raekallio M, Kuusela E, McKusick B, Granholm M. Changes in the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane and some cardiopulmonary measurements during three continuous infusion rates of dexmedetomidine in dogs. Vet Anaesth Analg 33: 97-103, 2006.
77.Patel VR, Gosalbez R, Castellan M. Comparison between ureteral replacements using a transverse tabularized colonic tube or ileal ureter: experimental study in dogs. J Pediatr Surg 41: 799-803, 2006.
78.Pippi NL, Lumb WV. Objective tests of analgesic drugs in ponies. Am J Vet Res 40: 1082-1086, 1979.
79.Puumala T, Riekkinen P Sr, Sirvio J. Modulation of vigilance and behavioral ctivation by alpha-1 adrenoceptors in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 56: 705-712, 1997.
80.Pypendop BH, Verstegen JP. Hemodynamic effects of medetomidine in the dog: A dose titration study. Vet Surg 27: 612-622, 1998.
81.Raekallio MR, Kuusela EK, Lehtinen ME, Tykkylainen MK, Huttunen P, Westerholm FC. Effects of exercise-induced stress and dexamethasone on plasma hormone and glucose concentrations and sedation in dogs treated with dexmedetomidine. Am J Vet Res. 66: 260-265, 2005.
82.Ramsay MA, Stirling I, Knutsen LO, Broughton E. Use of yohimbine hydrochloride to reverse immobilization of polar bears by ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. J Wildl Dis 21: 396-400, 1985.
83.Redondo JI, Gomez-Villamandos RJ, Santisteban JM, et al. Romifidine, medetomidine or xylazine before propofol-halothane-N20 anesthesia in dogs. Can J Vet Res 63: 31-36, 1999.
84.Reutlinger RA, Karl AA, Vinal SI, et al. Effects of ketamine HCl-xylazine HCI combination on cardiovascular and pulmonary values of the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatto). Am J Vet Res 41: 1453-1457, 1980.
85.Richter KP, Ling GV. Effects of xylazine on the urethral pressure profile of healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res 46: 1881-1886, 1985.
86.Roger T, Ruckebusch Y. Colonic alpha 2-adrenoceptor-mediated responses in the pony. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 10: 310-318, 1987.
87.Ruckebusch Y, Allal C. Depression of reticulo-ruminal motor functions through the stimulation of alpha 2-adrenoceptors. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 10: 1-10, 1987.
88.Rutkowski JA, Ross MW, Cullen K. Effects of xylazine and/or butorphanol or neostigmine on myoelectric activity of the cecum and right ventral colon in female ponies. Am J Vet Res 50: 1096-1101, 1989.
89.Santangelo B, Ferrari D, Di Martino I, Belli A, Cordella C, Ricco A, Troisi S, Vesce G. Dexmedetomidine chemical restraint of two raptor species undergoing inhalation anaesthesia. Vet Res Commun 33: 209-211, 2009.
90.Santos LC, Ludders JW, Erb HN, Basher KL, Kirch P, Gleed RD. Sedative and cardiorespiratory effects of dexmedetomidine and buprenorphine administered to cats via oral transmucosal or intramuscular routes. Vet Anaesth Analg 37: 417- 424, 2010.
91.Savola JM, Virtanen R. Central α2-adrenoceptors are highly stereoselective for dexmedetomidine, the dextro enantiomer of medetomidine. Eur J Pharmacol 195: 193-199, 1991.
92.Short CE. Neuroleptanalgesia and alpha-adrenergic receptor analgesia. In: Short CE, ed. Principles and Practice of Veterinary Anesthesia. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 47-57, 1987.
93.Short CE. Neuroleptanalgesia and alpha-adrenergic receptor analgesia. In: Short CE, ed. Principles and Practice of Veterinary Anesthesia. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 47-57, 1987.
94.Sinclair MD. A review of the physiological effects of a2-agonists related to the clinical use of medetomidine in small animal practice. Can Vet J 44: 885-897, 2003.
95.Steffey EP, Pascoe PJ, Woliner MJ, et al. Effects of xylazine hydrochloride during isoflurane-induced anesthesia in horses. Am J Vet Res 61: 1225-1231, 2000.
96.Stenberg D. The role of alpha-adrenoceptors in the regulation of vigilance and pain. Acta Vet Scand 82: 29-34, 1986.
97.Strombeck DR, Harrold D. Effects of atropine, acepromazine, meperidine, and xylazine on gastroesophageal sphincter pressure in the dog. Am J Vet Res 46: 963-965, 1985.
98.Thomas JA, Lerche P. Anesthesia and analgesia for veterinary technicians. 4thed. Mosby Inc, St. Louis, 2011.


99.Thurmon JC, Neff-Davis CA, Davis LE, Stoker RA, Benson GJ, Lock TF. Xylazine hydrochloride-induced hyperglycemia and hypoinsulinemia in thoroughbred horses. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 5: 241-245, 1982.
100.Thurmon JC, Nelson DR, Hartsfield SM, et al. Effects of xylazine hydrochloride on urine in cattle. Aust Vet J 54:178-180, 1978.
101.Thurmon JC, Steffey EP, Zinkl JG, Woliner M, Howland D Jr. Xylazine causes transient dose-related hyperglycemia and increased urine volumes in mares. Am J Vet Res 45: 224-227, 1984.
102.Thurmon JC, Steffey ER Zinkl JG, et al. Xylazine causes transient dose-related hyperglycemia and increased urine volumes in mares. Am J Vet Res 45: 224-227, 1984.
103.Tranquilli WJ, Thurmon JC, Corbin JE, et al. Halothane-sparing effect of xylazine in dogs and subsequent reversal with tolazoline. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 7: 23-28, 1984.
104.Tranquilli WJ, Thurmon JC, Turner ТА, Benson GJ, Lock ТЕ. A preliminary report: Butorphanol tartrate as an adjunct to xylazine - ketamine in the horse. Equine Pract 5: 26-29, 1983.
105.Trim CM, Hanson RR. Effects of xylazine on renal function and plasma glucose in ponies. Vet Rec 118: 65-67, 1986.
106.Vainio O, Vaha-Vahe T, Palmu L. Sedative and analgesic effects of medetomidine in dogs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 12: 225-231, 1989.
107.Vickery RG, Sheridan BC, Segal IS, Maze M. Anesthetic and hemodynamic effects of the stereoisomers of medetomidine, an α2-adrenergic agonist, in halothane-anesthetized dogs. Anesth Analg 67: 611-615, 1988.
108.Yamakage M, Iwasaki S, Satoh JI, Namiki A. Inhibitory effects of the alpha-2 adrenergic agonists clonidine and dexmedetomidine on enhanced airway tone in ovalbumin-sensitized guinea pigs. Eur J Anaesthesiol 25: 67-71, 2008.
109.Yoshitomi T, Kohjitani A, Maeda S, Higuchi H, Shimada M, Miyawaki T. Dexmedetomidine enhances the local anesthetic action of lidocaine via an alpha-2A adrenoceptor. Anesth Analg 107: 96-101, 2008.
110.Young LE, Brearley JC, Richards DLS, Bartram DH, Jones RS. Medetomidine as a premedicant in dogs and its reversal by atipamezole. J Small Anim Pract 31: 554-559, 1990.