臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

十八世紀之後西歐知識份子開始自覺所處的時代不同於以往，因而重新解釋過往的歷史，檢討當前人類的處境，更進一步提出歷史發展所應有的方向，於是乃有「文明觀」（concept of civilization）的提出。文明觀有兩層含意，其一是對過往歷史的詮釋，其二則是論歷史發展應有的方向及目的；前者針對歷史過程的實然面，後者則論未來歷史發展之應然；「文明」（civilization）一詞在今日的用法中可指歷史發展的過程與階段（progress and stages），也可指人類社會的理想狀態（ideal state）。若有所謂歷史發展，則必有方向，若有方向，則必有其目的，因此文明觀必含有目的論（teleological）的思想，也必同時包含上述兩層含意。十八、十九世紀當文明觀尚在發展初期時，人們相信人類歷史的發展將經歷既定的各種階段，朝向一理想社會不斷進化，此即是直線進步觀（idea of linear progress）；直到十九與二十世紀之交人們方開始討論文明理想與現實歷史發展之間的不同，漸而不再將歷史視為人類社會進步至完美的過程。
本論文以人文學的方法討論十九世紀文明觀的起源與特質，以及文明觀在十九世紀末以迄一次大戰之後的轉變；並進一步試圖探討十九、二十世紀之交文明觀轉變的歷史意義，從中發現現代文明觀的特質與文明未來發展可能的方向。

The concept of civilization originated from the historical consciousness of the intellectuals in the eighteenth century. Foreseeing the coming of a new era, these intellectuals proposed a handful of reconstruction plans for an expecting society, and debated the appropriate ways in the future progress. The concept of civilization represents two correlating ideas: the first is the reinterpretation of the past, and the second is the ideal objective of the progress of history. The modern usage of the word civilization is to denote either the different stages and progress of the history or the ideal state of society. The different modern usages show that there must be a final goal and direction in historical process; namely the concept of civilization is teleological. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the concept of civilization was the idea of linear progress: history would progress through different but definite stages and keep evolving until achieving the ideal state of society. It was not until the end of the nineteenth century that few people found the clash between the reality of human nature and the ideal state of historical development and started to doubt the concept of their contemporaries.
The thesis treats “civilization” as a historical and humanistic concept. The thesis investigates the origin and the characteristics of the concept in the nineteenth century, and its changes from the end of the nineteenth century to the end of the WWI. An attempt to interpret the historical meaning and significance of the change of concept between the centuries would be made. Through the discussion above, the author in the end would try to describe the characteristics of modern civilization and the probable direction of the future development of “our” civilization.

第一章 緒論：問題意識的說明 1
第一節 文明觀的基本性質與中心問題 1
第二節 研究取向的問題 9
第二章 史上文明觀念的發展 20
第一節 古代的歷史意識與文明關懷 20
第二節 近代文明觀的興起：文藝復興與宗教改革 26
第三節 啟蒙運動時期的文明觀 30
第三章 文明觀與進步觀：十九世紀至二十世紀初 37
第一節 法國大革命與文明理想的實踐 38
第二節 進步觀的思想內涵 46
第三節 近代意識型態的進步觀思想表現 56
第四節 十九與二十世紀之交文明觀的轉變 63
一、世紀之交歷史變遷的意義 63
二、進步觀的危機 70
三、一次大戰與進步觀的崩潰 76
第四章 探討與批判：理想性、現實性、與世紀之交的文明困境 82
第一節 傳統文明觀念中的理想性與現實性 82
第二節 從理想與現實的衝突看世紀之交的文明困境 89
一、民主政治的內在矛盾 92
二、經濟發展的問題 95
三、自由與平等之間的緊張性 98
四、社會主義的困境 100
五、民族主義的發展與扭曲 102
第三節 大眾文化與文明理想性的衝突 105
第四節 文明路線之爭與意識型態的調整 108
第五章 結論：現代文明觀的特質及其省思 113
第一節 個體性與主觀性 113
第二節 理性的極限 119
第三節 宗教信仰意義的確認 132
第四節 多元價值取向與文明觀的普世化 142
參考文獻 146

中文期刊
1.王世宗，〈自由派的帝國主義：英國對埃政策，一八九三至一八九四〉，中央研究院《歐美研究》，第三十一卷第三期，頁1-47。
2.周如怡，〈成一家之言與通古今之變：究錢穆的天人之際〉，《東吳歷史學報》第十五期，2006年6月。
中文專書
1.王世宗，《現代世界的形成——文明終極意義的探求》，台北：三民，2003。
2.王曾才，《世界現代史》，台北：三民，民90。
3.達爾文，全巨蓀譯，《達爾文傳》，台北：臺灣商務，1968。
4.錢穆，《中國文化史導論》，台北：正中，民六十九年九月台十七版。
外文參考書與期刊
1.Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ Press, 1910-1911.
2.International Herald Tribune (Paris, Aug. 10, 1989).
3.Letters, Bulletin of the New York Public Library, XXIX (July 1925).
4.W.R. Jones,“The Image of the Barbarian in Medieval Europe,”Comparative Studies in Society and History 13, no. 4 (1971).
5.B. Nelson,“Vico and Comparative Historical Civilizational Sociology”, Social Research 43(4)(1976).
6.Donald M. Nonini, “Varieties of Materialism,” Dialectical Anthropology 10 no. 1-4 (June 1985).
7.A. J. Toynbee, in The Reader’s Digest (Oct. 1958).
8.Ernest Troeltsch, ‘Der Aufbau der europäischen Kulturgeschichte,’ Schmollers Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung, und Volkswirtschaft im Deutschen Reiche 44(3):1-48): Kulturkreise (1920).
學位論文
1.Ka-fu Keith Chan, The Relationship between Humanity and Nature in the Thought of Paul Tillich: A Study of Ecological Theology, Thesis (PhD), Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002.
2.Angelia K. Means, Recognizing Strangers: The Cosmopolitan Content of the Liberal Democratic Nation, Thesis (PhD), Harvard University, 2000.
3.Aida Yuen, Inventing Eastern Art in Japan and China, ca. 1890s to ca. 1930s, Thesis (PhD), Columbia University, 1999.
外文專書
1.René Albrecht-Carrié, A Diplomatic History of Europe since the Congress of Vienna, New York: Harper & Row, 1973.
2.Franz Alexander, Our Age of Unreason, New York: J. B. Lippincott Company: 1942.
3.Robert Ames and Philip Siegelman eds., The Idea of Evolution: Readings in Evolutionary Theory and Its Influnece, Minneapolis, Minnesota: Dillon Press, 1966.
4.John M. Anderson, The Individual and the New World: A Study of Man’s Existence Based upon American Life and Thought, State College, PA.: Bald Eagle Press, 1955.
5.Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy and Other Writings, ed. Stefan Collinin, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
6.Harry Elmer Barnes, An Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World, New York: Dover, 1965.
7.Carl L. Becker, The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers, New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1964.
8.Julien Benda, The Treason of the Intellectuals, New York: William Morrow, 1928.
9.Mabel Berezin and Martin A. Schain eds., Re-mapping Europe : territory, membership and identity in a transnational age, Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ Press, 2003.
10.Henri Bergson, Creative Evolution, trans. by Arthur Mitchell, New York: The Modern Library, 1944.
11.Georges Bernanos, The Last Essays of Georges Bernanos, trans. by George and Barry Ulanov (New York: Henry Regnary, 1955.
12.Richard Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages: A Study in Art, Sentiment, and Demonology, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Press, 1952.
13.J. G. De Beus, The Future of the West, New York: Harper, 1953.
14.T. C. W. Blanning ed., The Rise and Fall of the French Revolution, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1996.
15.Alastair Bonnett, The Idea of the West: Culture, Politics, and History, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
16.James Boswell, The Life of Samuel Johnson LL.D., ed. by Charles G. Osgood, eBooks@Adelaide, 2004.
17.Asa Briggs and Patricia Clavin, Modern Europe, 1789-1989, N. Y.: Longman, 1997.
18.Otto Brunner, Werner Conze, and Reinhart Koselleck eds., Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1972-97.
19.Samuel Butler, Collected Essays, New York: AMS Press, 1968.
20.Paul Cartledge, The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others , New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993.
21.Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, Fritz C. A. Koelin and James P. Pettegrove trans., N. J.: Princeton, 1951.
22.Sir John Chardin, The Travels of Sir John Chardin into Persia and the East Indies, London: Printed for M. Pitt, 1686.
23.Allan Chase, The Legacy of Malthus: The Social Costs of the New Scienfitic Racism, Urbana: Univ of Illinois Press, 1980.
24.James F. Cooper, The American Democrat, Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Classics, 1981.
25.Gordon A. Craig, Europe since 1815, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973.
26.Richard Crossman ed., The God That Failed, New York: Richard Crossman: 1949.
27.Charles Darwin, The Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection; or, The Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, New York: A. L. Burt Company..
28.Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd ed., London: John Murray, 1906.
29.Terry Eagleton, The Idea of Culture, Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2000.
30.Mary B. Eddy, Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Boston: Christian Scientiest Publishing Company, 1875.
31.Norbert Élias, The Civilizing Process, trans. Edmund Jephcott, Oxford and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994.
32.Ralph Waldo Emerson, Society and Solitude, Twelve Chapters, London: George Routledge and Sons, 1887.
33.Frederick Engles, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, ed. by Eleanor B. Leacock (New York: International Publishers, 1972.
34.Lucien Febvre, A Geographical Introduction to History, London: K. Paul Trench, Trubner, 1925.
35.Lucien Febvre, Émile [sic for Ernest] Tonnelat, Marcel Mauss, and Alfredo Niceforo, Civilisation: Le Mot et l’idée, Paris: La Renaissance du Livre, 1930.
36.Silvia Federici ed., Enduring Western Civilization: The Construction of the Concept of Western Civilization and Its“Others”, Westport: Praeger, 1995.
37.Alfred Fouillée, Le mouvement idéaliste et la réaction contre la science positive, Franklin Le Van Baumer trans., Paris: Ancienne Librairie Germer Baillière et Cie, 1896.
38.John Foxe, Acts and Monuments, 1563.
39.Philipp Frank, Modern Science and Its Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Press, 1941-9.
40.Sigmund Freud, Future of an Illusion, New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1961.
41.Sigmund Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. and ed. by James Strachey et al., London: Hograth Press, 1977.
42.José Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses, New York: W. W. Norton & Company: 1932.
43.J. Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, trans. J. R. Foster, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988.
44.François Guizot, History of Civilization in Europe, trans. William Hazlitt, London: Penguin Books, 1997.
45.Carlton J. H. Hayes, Contemporary Europe since 1870, New York: Macmillan, 1953.
46.J. G. von Herder, Sämtliche Werke, ed. Bernard Suphan, Berlin, 1877-1913.
47.Alexander Herzen, From the Other Shore, 1855.
48.Henry Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of European Social Thought: 1890-1930, New York: Knopf, 1958.
49.Victor Hugo, Address, May 30, 1878, on the centenary of Voltaire’s death. “Centenaire de Voltaire.”
50.Aldous Huxley, Brave New World: And, Brave New World Revisited, New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2005.
51.Thomas Henry Huxley, Man’s Place in Nature and Other Anthropological Essays , Akron, Ohio: Werner, c. 1890.
52.Thomas Henry Huxley, “On Implications of Evolution”, from Essays upon Some Controverted Questions, New York: D. Appleton & Co.; 1892.
53.Thomas Henry Huxley, Aphorisms and Reflections, selected by Henrietta A. Huxley, London: Macmillan, 1907.
54.T. H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics, London: Macmillan: 1894.
55.Johan Huizinga, In the Shadow of Tomorrow, a Diagnosis of the Spiritual Distemper of Our Time, London: W. Heinemann, 1936.
56.W. R. Inge, The Idea of Progress, New York: Clarendon Press: 1920.
57.William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Press, 1985.
58.Karl Jaspers, Way to Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy, trans. by Ralph Manheim, New Haven: Yale Univ Press, 1954.
59.C.E.M. Joad, Decadence, New York: Faber and Faber 1948.
60.C. J. Jung, The Collected Works of C.J. Jung, London: Bollingen Foundation: 1959-60.
61.A. Kemp, The Estrangement of the Past: A Study in the Origin of Modern Historical Consciousness, N. Y.: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991.
62.Paul Klee, The Diaries of Paul Klee 1898-1918, ed. by Felix Klee, San Francisco: California Univ Press, 1968.
63.Arthur Koestler, Arrow in the Blue, 1952, London: Vintage, 2005 reprinted.
64.A. L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, Cambridge, Mass.: The Museum , 1952.
65.A. L. Kroeber, An Anthropologist Looks at History, L. A.: Univ. of California Press, 1963.
66.D.H. Lawrence, The Complete Short Novels, New York: Penguin, 2000.
67.Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1930.
68.Vladimir Lenin, State and Revolution, N. Y.: International Publishers, 1929.
69.Vladimir Lenin, What is to Be Done?, N. Y.: International Publishers, 1929.
70.Vladimir Lenin, Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation?, Sidney and Beatrice Webb, 1936.
71.M. Lilla, G. B. Vico: The Making of Anti-modern, M. A., Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1993.
72.A. Lawrence Lowell,“Culture,”in At War with Academic Traditions in America, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1934.
73.Thomas Mann, Der Zauberberg, Fischer, trans. Helen T. Lowe-Porter, London: The Modern Library, McGraw-Hill, 1955.
74.Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, 1964.
75.Jacques Maritain, The Angelic Doctor ( St. Thomas Aquinas ), London: Dial: 1931.
76.Karl Marx and Frederick Engles, Selected Works in One Volume, New York: International Publishers, 1968.
77.Karl Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1859.
78.Bruce Mazlish, Civilization and Its Contents, Standford, Cal.: Stanford Univ. Press, 2004.
79.Herman Melville, The Writings of Herman Melville, vol. 9, eds. Harrison Hayford et al., Evanston, IL and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library, 1987
80.Herman Melville, Correspondence, ed. by Lynn Horth, Evanston, IL and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library, 1993.
81.John Stuart Mill, Dissertations and Discussions Political, Philosophical, and Historical, New York: Haskell House Publishers, 1973.
82.Henry Miller, The Wisdom of the Heart, New York: New Directions, 2007.
83.Lewis Henry Morgan, Ancient Society, or, Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilisation, Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1963.
84.Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization, New York: Harcourt, 1934.
85.Robert Musil ,The Man Without Qualities, trans. by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser, New York: Coward-McCann, 1953.
86.Friedrich Nietzsche, Complete Works, trans. and ed. by Oscar Levy, New York: Russell & Russell, 1964.
87.Friedrich Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, ed. and trans. by Walter Kaufmann, New York: Vintage Books, 1967.
88.Robert A. Nye, The Origins of Crowd Psychology: Gustave LeBon and the Crisis of Mass Democracy in the Third Republic, London: Sage Publications, 1975.
89.Max Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology, New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, c1991.
90.Robert Owen, The Book of the New Moral World, New York: G. Vale, 1845.
91.Thomas C. Patterson, Inventing Western Civilization, N. Y.: Monthly Review Press, 1997.
92.Thomas Pinney ed., The Letters of Thomas Babington Macaulay, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press, 1981.
93.Ezra Pound, Egoist, London, February 1914.
94.Ezra Pound, Guide to Kultur, London: Faber & Faber, 1938.
95.Ronald Radano and Philip V. Bohlman, Music and the Racial Imagination, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2000.
96.Walter Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis, Lousville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991.
97.Ishmael Reed, Neo-HooDoo Manifesto, Los Angles, CA.: Free Press, 1972.
98.Alan Richardson and Sonia Hofkosh eds., Romanticism, Race, and Imperial Culture, 1780-1834, Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1996.
99.Paul Ricoeur, History and Truth, tr. Charles A. Kelbley, Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ Press, 1965.
100.Aviel Roshwald and Richard Stites eds., European Culture in the Great War: The Arts, Entertainment, and Propaganda, 1914-1918, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ Press, 1999.
101.The Roosevelt Letters, vol. 3, ed. Elliott Roosevelt, London: G. G. Harrap, 1949, 1952.
102.Bertrand Russell, Autobiography, London: Routledge, 2000.
103.S. K. Sanderson ed., Civilizations and World Systems: Studying World-Historical Change, Walnut Creek, Cal., AltaMira: 1995.
104.Louis Schneider and Charles M. Bonjean eds., The Idea of Culture in the Social Sciences, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1973.
105.Carl E. Schorske, Thinking with History: Explorations in the Passage to Modernism, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ Press, 1998.
106.Ernst Friedrich Schumacher, Good Work , New York: Harper & Row, 1979.
107.Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, London: Routledge, 1994.
108.Albert Schweitzer, The Philosophy o f Civilization, trans. C. T. Campion, Buffalo: Prometheus, 1987.
109.W. H. Sewell, Jr., “Ideologies and Social Revolutions: Reflections on the French Case,” in T. C. W. Blanning ed., The Rise and Fall of the French Revolution, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1996.
110.Albert Shaw ed., The Messages and Papers of Woodrow Wilson, New York: The Review of Reviews, 1924.
111.G. B. Shaw ed., Fabian Essays in Socialism, London: Walter Scott, 1889.
112.C. John Sommerville, The Rise and Fall of Childhood, Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1982.
113.Georges Sorel, Reflection on Violence, ed. by Jeremy Jennings, New York: Cambridge Univ Press, 1999.
114.Herbert Spencer, Social Statics: Or, The Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified, and The First of Them Developed, London: Chapman, 1851.
115.Herbert Spencer, “Progress: Its Law and Cause,” in Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative, London: Williams and Norgate, 1901.
116.Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926.
117.Peter J. Stanlis, Edmund Burke: The Enlightenment and Revolution, New Brunswick, N. J., U.S.A.: Transaction Publishers, 1991.
118.Elizabeth C. Stanton et al., History of Woman Suffrage, Salem, New Hampshire, Ayer Publishing, 1985.
119.Jean Starobinski, Blessings in Disguise; or the Morality of Evil, tr. Arthur Goldhammer, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ Press, 1993.
120.Roland N. Stromberg, An Intellectual History of Modern Europe, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975.
121.William Howard Taft, Popular Government, 1913.
122.Charles Taylor,“Comparison, History, Truth”, in F. Reynolds and D. Tracey eds., Myth and Philosophy, N. Y.: SUNY, 1990.
123.Henry David Thoreau, The Writings of Henry David Thoreau, ed. by Michael Meyer, New York : AMS Press, 1982.
124.Lynn Thorndike, A Short History of Civilization, New York: F. S. Crofts & CO., 1935, first printing, 1926.
125.Paul Tillich, The Courage To Be, New York: Yale: 1952.
126.Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, 12 vols, London: Oxford Univ Press, 1934-59.
127.Heinrich von Treitschke, Politics, Blanche Dugdale ad Torban de Bille trans., London: Constable & Company Limited: 1916.
128.Leon Trotsky, My Life: An Attempt at an Autobiography, New York: Pathfinder, 1970.
129.Edward Burnett Tylor, Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom, London: J. Murray, 1920.
130.Franklin Le Van Baumer, Main Currents of Western Thought: Readings in Western European Intellectual History from the Middle Ages to the Present, 4th ed., New Haven and London: Yale Univ. Press, 1978.
131.Raoul Vaneigem, The Revolution of Everyday Life, Red and Black, 1967.
132.Mrs. Emilie Ashurst Venturi, Joseph Mazzini: A Memoir, London: Alexander & Shepheard; 1875.
133.Gimbattisa Vico, New Science, 1744 ed., trans. Bergin and Fisch.
134.C. –F. Volney, The Ruins, or, A Survey of the Revolutions of Empires, trans. by M. Volney, London: printed for J. Johnson, 1796.
135.Mary Heaton Vorse, A Footnote to Folly: Reminiscences of Mary Heaton Vorse, New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1935.
136.Oscar Wilde, The Soul of Man Under Socialism, Gutenberg Project: August, 1997, EBook #1017.
137.H. T. Wilson, Tradition and Innovation: the Idea of Civilization as Culture and Its Significance, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984.
138.Kevin Wilson and Jan van der Dussen eds., The History of the Idea of Europe, London: Routledge, 1995.
139.Émile Zola, Le Roman expérimental, Paris: G. Charpentier: 1880.
網路資源
1.http://creativequotations.com/one/982.htm
2.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_theory_and_the_political_left
3.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_to_Darwin%27s_theory
4.http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAchapmanJJ.htm