臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

法醫昆蟲學依據被屍體吸引而來的昆蟲相，特別是麗蠅，對命案的種種情況作出有價值的判斷。靠著分析在屍體上的幼蟲之種類，再對照其生活史，可以精準地推測死後間隔時間（post-morterm interval, PMI）到以小時為單位；然而國內目前相關資料仍十分缺乏，且麗蠅並不容易單從外表做區分，所以種類鑑定資料的建立便成為首要且必須的工作。本研究于北台灣以自製的陷阱，放以腐肉誘集食屍性麗蠅。依據成蟲的外部形態及雄性外生殖器等形態特徵，發現十種優勢種麗蠅，並已鑑定出其中九種，包括：大頭金蠅(Chrysomya megacephala)、肥軀金蠅(Chrysomya pinguis)、紅顏金蠅(Chrysomya rufifacies)、銅綠蠅(Lucilia cuprina) 、巴布亞綠蠅( Lucilia papuensis)、紫綠蠅(Lucilia porphyrina) 、瘦葉帶綠蠅(Hemipyrellia ligurriens) 、胖葉帶綠蠅(Hemipyrellia pulchra) 、印度絳蠅(Caiusa indica)等，分別作分類描述與形態比較。麗蠅科一直以來最主要用來辨識種類的分類特徵為雄性成蟲的外生殖器，可是，卻存在著無法辨識雌性成蟲和幼期的情況；此外，如標本缺少雄性外生殖器也會增加辨識上的困難。利用掃描式電子顯微鏡觀察成蟲胸背板微毛列式(thoracic micro-chaetotaxy)、胸背板小毛基部的特殊構造；蛹殼上第五、六腹節節間腹面突起及卵裂中杯狀突起(plastron)形狀、密度、大小等特徵進行形態學研究，已找到新的且能有效辨識種類之分類特徵；期望以此為基礎，逐步建立台灣法醫昆蟲學的基礎資料。

Forensic entomology is a discipline the uses the arthropod successions and the necrophagous fauna which attracted by corpses, especially the blow flies, to assist the criminal investigation. By analyzing the larvae on the corpses and their life histories, we can estimate postmortem interval (PMI) precisely in hours or to locate the site where the death occurred. Unfortunately, no related study has been preformed before in Taiwan; and furthermore, it’s usually not so easy to identify the blow flies to their species level only using external morphologies. So, it’s important to establish the most basic data to examine and determine those blow fly species. This study uses traps to collect blow flies in northern Taiwan. Results show ten dominant species have been found. According to the morphology of male adults and their genitalia, we successfully identify nine of them. They are Chrysomya megacephala,C. pinguis, C. rufifacies, Lucilia cuprina, L. papuensis, L. porphyrina, Hemipyrellia ligurriens, H. pulchra and Caiusa indica. Male terminalia is the most important character to identify Calliphoridae species, but it’s difficult to recognize female adults and immature stages to species level. Using electronmicrography, we can find the ultra-structures on thoracic micro-chaetotaxy, basal ultra-structure of thoracic seata, ventral processes on 5th and 6th segments of puparium, and plastron of eggs are probably useful in dividing species. These results provided a new, quick and easy way to judge blow fly species. We expect to establish a basic forensic entomology data in Taiwan for further references.

中文摘要……………………………………………………………………….i
英文摘要………………………………………………………………………ii目錄………………………………………………………………………...iii
圖次……………………………………………………………………………vi
表次……………………………………………………………………………ix
附錄次………………………………………………………………………………ix
壹、緒言………………………………………………………………………1
貳、往昔研究…………………………………………………………………3
一、分類學研究………………………………………………………………3
二、生物學……………………………………………………………………4
三、法醫重要性………………………………………………………………5
參、材料與方法
一、標本採集…………………………………………………………………9
二、標本處理…………………………………………………………………9
(一)乾燥標本(成蟲)..……………………………………………………..9
(二)浸液標本…………………………………………………………………9
(三)雄性成蟲外生殖器………………………………………………………9
(四)電顯標本…………………………………………………………………10
三、標本描記 ……………………….………………………………………11
四、北台灣標本採集樣區地名中英對照……………………………………11
肆、結果與討論………………………………………………………………14
一、形態學概述……………………………………………………………..14
(一)形態學術語………………………………………………………………14
(二)傳統形態學……………………………………………………………..17
1.頭部…………………………………………………………………………17
2.胸部…………………………………………………………………………18
3.足……………………………………………………………………………21
4.雄性外生殖器………………………………………………………………22
(三)超微形態特徵…………………………………………………………..24
1.成蟲胸背版微毛特徵………………………………………………………24
2.蛹殼上第五、六腹節節間腹面突起………………………………………30
3.卵裂中之杯狀組織…………………………………………………………35
二、傳統分類學………………………………………………………………36
(一)台灣產麗蠅名錄………………………………………………………..37
(二)北台灣地區具法醫重要性麗蠅檢索表…………………………………41
(三)分類各論…………………………………………………………………43
1. Genus Chrysomya Robineau-Desvoidy 金蠅屬……………………….43
(1)Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) 大頭金蠅…………………….44
(2)Chrysomya pinguis (Walker) 肥軀金蠅………………………………50
(3)Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) 紅顏金蠅……………….………55
2.Genus Lucilia Robineau-Desvoidy 綠蠅屬……………………………61
(1)Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann) 銅綠蠅…………………………….…62
(2)Lucilia Papuensis (Macquart) 巴布亞綠蠅………………………..68
(3)Lucilia porphyrina (Walker) 紫綠蠅……………………………….72
(4)Lucilia sp. …………………………………………………………….78
3.Genus Hemipyrellia Townsend 帶綠蠅屬………………………………82
(1)Hemipyrellia ligurriens (Wiedemann) 瘦葉帶綠蠅…….…………83
(2)Hemipyrellia pulchra (Wiedemann) 胖葉帶綠蠅……………….…89
4.Genus Caiusa Surcouf 絳蠅屬………………………………………….93
(1) Caiusa indica Surcouf 印度絳蠅…………………………………..94
伍、結論……………………………………………………………………..98
陸、參考文獻……………………………………………………………….100
柒、致謝…………………………………………………………………….108
捌、附錄…………………………………………………………………….109

洪資兆。1995。大頭金蠅的生命表與大量飼養。國立台灣大學昆蟲學研究所碩士論文。77頁。
范滋德。1965。中國常見蠅類檢索表。科學出版社。北京。330頁。
范滋德等編著。1997。中國動物志：昆蟲綱第六卷雙翅目麗蠅科。科學出版社。北京。707頁。
Adair, T. W. 1999. Three species of blowfly (Diptera: Calliphordae) collected from a human stillborn infant in the rocky mountains of Colorado. J. Med. Entomol. 36: 236-237.
Anderson, G. S. 1997. The use of insects to determine time of decapitation: a case-study from British Columbia. J. Forensic Sci. 42: 947-950.
Anderson, G. S. 1999. Wildlife forensic entomology: determining time of death in two illegally killed black bear cubs. J. Forensic Sci. 44: 856-859.
Anderson, G. S., and S. L. Van Laerhoven. 1996. Initial studies on insect succession on carrion in southwestern British Columbia. J. Forensic Sci. 41: 617-625.
Aubertin, D. 1931. Revision of the genus Hemipyrellia Tns. (Diptera, Calliphoridae). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 2: 497-509.
Aubertin, D. 1932. Notes on the Oriental species of the genus Chrysomya. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), 9: 26-30.
Aubertin, D. 1933. Revision of the genus Lucilia R.-D. J. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool. 38: 389-463.
Avila, F. W., and M. L. Goff. 1998. Arthropod succession patterns onto Burnt carrion in two contrasting habitats in the Hawaiian island. J. Forensic Sci. 43: 581-586.
Benecke, M. 2001. A brief history of forensic entomology. Forensic Sci. Int. 120: 2-14.
Bergeret, M.1855. Homicide of a new-born child found in a chimney, and its natural mummification. Determination of postmortem interval by the use of insect larva and their metamorphosis. Ann. Hyg. Med. Leg. 4: 442-452. (in French)
Bigot, J. M. 1877. Diptères nouveaux ou peu connus. 8(1), 10 Genre Calliphora, Mellinda, Mufetia, Lucilia, Chrysomya (alias Microchrysa Rond.) Robineau-Desvoidy. Annls. Soc. Entomol. France 5(7): 243-259.
Bigot, J. M. 1887. Diptères nouveaux ou peu connus. Bull. Soc. Zool. France. 12: 581-617.
Bourel, B., V. Hedouin, J. C. Caillieze., D. Derout, and D. Gosset. 1999a. Necrophilous insect succession on rabbit carrion in sand dune habitats in northern France. J. Med. Entomol. 36: 420-425.
Bourel, B., V. Hedouin, L. M. Bouyer, A. Becart, G. Tournal, M. Deveaux, and D. Gosset. 1999b. Effects of morphine in decomposing bodies on the development of Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae). J. Forensic Sci. 44: 354-358.
Brauer, F. and J. F. Bergenstamm. 1880-1894. Die zweiflügler des Kaiserlichen Museum zu Wien Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 624 pp.
Brouardel, P. 1879. Determination of postmortem interval/time of birth of a new born child by use of larva from the genus Aglossa on a mummified corpse. Ann. Hyg. Pub. Med. Entomol. 35: 694-698.
Byrd, J. H., and J. F. Bulter. 1997. Effects of temperature on Chrysomya rufifacies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) development. J. Med. Entomol. 34: 353-358.
Byrd, J. H., and J. F. Bulter. 1998. Effects of temperature on Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) development. J. Med. Entomol. 35: 694-698.
Byrd, J. H., and J. L. Castner eds. 2001. Forensic entomology: the utility of arthropods in legal investigations. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Campobasso, C. P., G. D. Vella, and F. Introna. 2001. Factors affecting decomposition and Diptera colonization. Forensic Sci. Int. 120: 18-27.
Catts, E. P., and N. H. Haskell. 1990. Entomology & death: a procedural guide. Joyce''s Point Shop, Inc., Clemson. 182pp.
Catts, E. P., and M. L. Goff. 1992. Forensic entomology in criminal investigations. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 37: 253-272.
Davies, L., and G. G. Ratcliffe. 1994. Development rates of some pre-adult stages in blowflies with reference to low temperatures. Med. Vet. Entomol. 8: 245-254.
De Jong, G. D. 1994. An annotate checklist of the Calliphoridae (Diptera) of Colorado, with notes on carrion associations and forensic importance. J. Kansas Entomol. Soc. 67: 378-385.
De Souza, A. M., and A. X. Linhares. 1997. Diptera and Coleoptera of potential forensic importance in southeastern Brazil: relative abundance and seasonality. Med. Vet. Entomol. 11: 8-12.
Enderlein, G. 1931. Einige Mitteilungen über lappländische Dipteren. Entomol. Tidskr. 53(3): 171-174.
Fabricius, J. C. 1792-1794. Entomologia systematica emendate et aucta, secundum, classes, ordines, genera, speices, adjectis synonymis, locis observationbus, descriptionbus. Hafnie (proft.). I. 1792; II. 1793; III. 1, 1793, 2, 1794; IV. 1794.
Galloway, A., W. H. Birkby, A. M. Jones, T. E. Henry, and B. O. parks. 1989. Decay rates of human remains in an arid environment. J. Forensic Sci. 34: 607-616.
Gan, Y. 1958. On the Chinese species of the Genus Chrysomya R.-D. (Diptera, Calliphoridae). Acta Entomol. Sin. 8(4): 340-350.
Goff, M. L. 1991. Comparison of insect species associated with decomposing remains recovered inside dwellings and outdoors on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. J. Forensic Sci. 36: 748-753.
Goff, M. L., and W. D. Lord. 1994. Entomology: a new area for forensic investigation. Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 15: 51-57.
Goff, M. L., A. I. Omori, and J. R. Goodbrod. 1989. Effect of Cocaine in tissues on the development rate of Boettcherusca peregrine (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). J. Med. Entomol. 26: 91-93.
Goff, M. L., W. A. Brown, and A. I. Omori. 1992. Preliminary observations of the effect of Methamphetamine in decomposing tissues on the development rate of Parasarcophaga ruficornis (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) and implications of the effect on the estimation of postmortem intervals. J. Forensic Sci. 37: 867-872.
Goff, M. L., W. A. Brown, A. I. Omori, and D. A. Lapointe. 1993. Preliminary observations of the effect of Amitriptyline in decomposing tissues on the development rate of Parasarcophaga ruficornis (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) and implications of the effect on the estimation of postmortem interval. J. Forensic Sci. 38: 316-322.
Goff, M. L., W. A. Brown, A. I. Omori, and D. A. Lapointe. 1994. Preliminary observations of the effect of Phencyclidine in decomposing tissues on the development rate of Parasarcophaga ruficornis (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). J. Forensic Sci. 39: 123-128.
Greenberg, B., and D. Singh. 1995. Species identification of Calliphoridae (Diptera) eggs. J. Med. Entomol. 32: 21-26.
Gunatilake, K., and M. L Goff. 1989. Detection of organophosphate poisoning in a putrefying body by analyzing arthropod larvae. J. Forensic Sci. 34:714-716.
Hall, R. D. 1990. Medicocriminal entomology. pp: 1-8. In: E. P. Catts, and N. H. Haskell eds. Entomology & death: a procedural guide. Joyce''s print shop, Inc., Clemson.
Hall, R.D. 2001. introduction: perceptions and status of forensic entomology. pp: 1-15. In: J. H. Byrd, and J. L. Castner eds. 2001. Forensic entomology: the utility of arthropods in legal investigations. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Haskell, N. H., D. G. Mcshaffrey, D. A. Hawley, R. E. Williams, and J. E. Pless. 1989. Use of aquatic insects in determining submersion interval. J. Forensic Sci. 34: 622-632.
Hennig, W. 1941. Verzeichnis der Dipteren von Formosa. Entomol. Beih. 8: 1-239.
Hsieh, L. 1958. Notes on the families Calliphoridae, Sacrophagidae, and Muscidae in Amoi with descriptions of the three new species. Acta Entomol. Sin. 8: 77-84.
Ishijima, H. 1967. Revision of the third stage larva of synanthropic flies of Japen (Diptera: Anthomyiidae, Muscidae, Calliphoridae and Sacrophagidae). Japen. J. Saint. Zool. 18(2-3): 47-100.
James, M. T. 1947. The flies that cause myiasis in man. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 631, Wash. 175pp.
Johnston, W., and G.. Villeneuve. 1879. On the medico-legal application of entomology. Montreal Med. J. 26:81-90.
Kano, R., and S. Shinonaga. 1968. Fauna Japonica: Calliphoridae (Insecta: Diptera). Biogeographical Soc. of Japan, Natl. Sci. Mus., Tokyo. 181 pp.
Keh, B. 1985. Scope and applications of forensic entomology. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 30: 137-154.
Keilin, D. 1915. Recherches sur les larves de Dipteres Cyclorrhaphes. Bull. Sci. de la Belg. 7, 49:15-198.
Kenneth G. V. Smith. 1986 A manual of forensic entomology. Department of entomology, British museum. (National history)
Kintz, P., A. Tracqui, B, Ludes, J. Walker, A. Boukhabza, P. Mangin, A . A. Lugnier, and A. J. Chaumont. 1990. Fly larvae and their relevance in forensic toxicology. Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 11: 63-65.
Knipling, E. F. 1939. A key for blow fly larvae concerned in wound and cutaneous myiasis. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 32: 376-382.
Kurahashi, H. 1987. Blow-flies of medical importance in Taiwan (Diptera:Caplliporidae)I. Tribes Calliphorini and Luciliini. Sieboldia Supplement: 47-59.
Kurahashi H. 1987. The blow flies of New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelaga and Bougainville Island (Diptera: Caliphoridae). Occas. Publ. Entomol. Soc. Jap. 1: 99pp.
Lin, F., and C. Chen, 1999. The name list of Taiwan Diptera. Institute of zoology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. pp. 114-115.
Liu, D., and B. Greenberg. 1989. Immature stages of some flies of forensic importance. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 82: 80-93.
Lockwood, J. A., R. Kumar, and D.G. Eckles. 1994. Mystery of the slaughtered horse: solving a 400-year-old death with forensic entomology. Am. Entomol. 210-215.
Macquart, J. 1840-1855. Diptères exotiques nouveaux ou peu connus. Paris(Roret) et Mem. Soc. Sci. Agric. Lille, 1838, 1842, 1855.
Malloch, J. R. 1925-1935. Exotic Muscaridae, XVI. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 17: 489-510.
Malloch, J. R. 1927. Notes on Austalian Diptera, 11. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 52(3): 295-335.
Mann, R. W., W. M. Bass, and L. Meadows. 1990. Time since death and decomposition of the human body: variables and observations in case and experimental field studies. J. Forensic Sci. 35: 103-111.
Marchenko, M. I. 2001. Medicolegal relevance of cadaver entomofauna for the determination of the time of death. Forensic Sci. Int. 120: 89-109.
Mégnin, P. 1889. Entomologie appliqué a la medicine légale. Bull. Soc. Méd. Légale France. 30: 249-251.
Meigen, J. W. 1818-1838. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europaischen zweiflugligen Insekten. 8 vols.
Meskin, I. 1991. The egg of the highveld blowfly, Calliphora croceipalpis (Diptera), with a key to the eggs of five other highveld species. J. Entomol. Soc. Sth. Afr. 54:185-190.
Mukaida, M., H. Kimura, Y. Takada, T. Masuda, and Y. Nakata. 2000. The person identification of many samples recovered from under the sea. Forensic Sci. Int. 113: 79-85.
Nolte, K. B., R. D. Prinder, and W. D. Lord. 1992. Insect Larvae used to detect Cocaine poisoning in a decomposed body. J. Forensic Sci. 37: 1179-1185.
Nuorteva, P., M. Isokoski, and K. Laiho. 1967. Studies on the possibilities of using blowflies (Dipt.) as medicolegal indicators in Finland. 1. Report of four indoor cases from the city of Helsinki. Ann. Entomol. Fenn. 33: 217-225.
Nuorteva, P., H. Schumann, M. Isokoski, and K. Laiho. 1974. Studies on the possibilities of using blowflies (Dipt., Calliphoridae) as medicolegal indicators in Finland. 2. Four cases where species identification was performed from larvae. Ann. Entomol. Fenn. 40:70-74.
O''Flynn, M. A. 1983. The succession and rates of development of blowflies in carrion in southern Queensland and the application of these data to forensic entomology. J. Aust. Entomol. Soc. 22:137-148.
Oliva, A. 2001. Insects of forensic significance in Argentina. Forensic Sci. Int. 120: 145-154.
Patton, W. S. 1921. Notes on the myiasis-producing Diptera of man and animals. Bull. Entomol. Res. 12: 239-261.
Patton, W. S. 1922a. Some notes on Indian Calliphorine whose larva cause cutaneous myasis in man and animals. Ind. J. Med. Res. 9: 555-560.
Patton, W. S. 1922b. Notes on Calliphoridae. Part 1. The Oriental species. Bull. Entomol. Res. 13: 112.
Patton, W. S. 1935-1936. Studies on the higher Diptera of medical and veterinary importance. A revision of the genera of the subfamily Calliphorinae based on a comparative study of the male and female terminalia. The genus Calliphora Robineau-Desvoidy. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitil. 29: 19-32 (1935); The genus Cordylobia Grunberg(sens. lat. ) Ibid. 30: 57-69 (1936).
Peterson, J. L., and J. E. Murdock. 1989. Forensic science ethics: developing an intergrated system of support and enforcement. J. Forensic Sci. 34: 749-762.
Quo, F. 1952. On the Chinese species of the genus Lucilia R.-D. (Diptera, Calliphoridae). Acta Entomol. Sin. 2(2): 113-117.
Robineau-Desvoidy, A. J. B. 1830. Essai sur les Myodares. Memoires A 1’academie des Sciences, Paris. 813 pp.
Robineau-Desvoidy, A. J. B. 1863. Histoire naturelle des Diptères des environs de paris. II. Paris (Masson).
Rohdendorf, B. B. 1927. Morphorogisches Studuim an ausseren Genitalorganen der Calliphorinen. Zool. Mus. Univ. Moskau. 36: 83-128.
Rohdendorf, B. B. 1928. Calliphorinen-Studien II (Dipt. ). Entomol. Mitt. 17: 336-338.
Rohlf, F. J. 2001. TpsDig, version 1.31. Dipt. Of Ecology and Evolution, State University of New York at Stony Brook.
Rondani, C. 1875. Muscaria ecotica Musei Civici Januensis. Fragmentum Ann. Mus. Genova. 7: 421-466.
Sandler, D. W., C. Fuke, F. Court, and D. J. Pounder. 1995. Drug accumulation and elimination in Calliphora vicina larvae. Forensic Sci. Int. 71: 191-197.
Séguy, E. 1925. Sur les caractères communs aux Oestrides et aux calliphorinae. C. R. Séances Acad. Sc., 292: 735-736.
Séguy, E. 1928. Etudes sur les mouches parasites et les formes voisines, II. Encycl. Entomol. (B) II Dipt. 4: 101-106.
Séguy, E.1934. Diptères de Chine de la collection de M. J. Herve-Bazin. Encycl. Entomol. (B) II Dipt. 7: 1-28.
Séuguy, E. 1948. Trois Diptères nouveaux d’Asie Orientale. 3. Un nouveau Calliphoride du Genre “Caiusa” et syno[sis des especes de ce genre. Notes d’Entom. Chin. 12: 146-147.
Senior-White, R., Aubertin, D., and Smart, J. 1940. The fauna of British India, including the remainder of the Oriental region. Dipt. 6. Calliphoridae, 288pp.
Shannon, R. C. 1924. Nearctic Calliphoridae, Lucilini (Diptera). Insecutor Inscit. Menstr. 12: 67-81.
Sherman, R. A., F. A. Wyle, and L. Thrupp. 1995. Effects of seven antibiotics on the growth and development of Phaenicia sericata (Diptera: calliphoridae) larvae. J. Med. Entomol. 32:646-649.
Shewell, G.E. 1987. Manual of Nearctic Diptera Vol. 2. Biosystematics research center Ottawa, Ontario. pp. 1133-1145.
Smith, K. G., V. 1986. A manual of forensic entomology. British Mus. (Natural Hiatory) and Cornell Univ. Press, London.
Solomon, E. P., L. R. Berg, D. W. Martin, and C. Villee. 1996. Biology. Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth.
Starkeby, M. 2001. Dead larvae of Cynomya mortuorum (L.) (Diptera:Calliphoridae) as indicators of the post-mortem interval- a case history from Norway. Forensic Sci. Int. 120:77-78.
Surcouf, J. M. R. 1914. Revision des Muscidae testaceae. Mus. d’Hist. Nat., Nouv. Arch. 1914: 27-124.
Tantawi, T. I., and Greenberg, B. Chrysomya albiceps and C. rufifacies (Diptera: Calliphoridae): contribution to an ongoing taxonomic problem. J. Med. Entomol. V. 30 (3): 646-648.
Tantawi, T. I., E. M. EL-Kady, B. Greenberg, and H. A. EL-Chaffar. 1996. Arthropod succession exposed rabbit carrion in Alexandria, Egypt. J. Med. Entomol. 33:566-580.
Thomas, H. T. 1951. Some species of the blow-fly genera Chrysomyia R.-D., China. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 121(1): 147-200.
Thompson, W. R. 1920. Synonymical and other notes on Diptera. Psyche 17: 210-213.
Tomberlin, J. K., and P. H. Adler. 1998. Seasonal colonization and decomposition of the rat carrion in water and on land in an open field in south Carolina. J. Med. Entomol. 35:704-709.
Townsend, C. H. T. 1918. New muscoid genera, species and synonymy. Insecutor Inscit. Menst. 6: 151-156.
Townsend, C. H. T. 1919. New genera and speices of muscoid flies. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 56 (2301): 541-592.
Turchetto, M., S. Lafisca, and G. Costantini. 2001. Postmortem interval (PMI) determined by study sarcophagous biocenoses: three cases from the province of Venice. Forensic Sci. Int. 120:28-31.
Turner, B. and T. Howard. 1992. Metabolic heat generation in dipteran larval aggregations: a consideration for forensic entomology. J. Med. Vet. Entomol. 6:179-181.
Upton, M. S. 1991. Collecting methods and equipment. pp:14-31. in:Methods for collecting, preserving, and studying insect and allied forms. Australian Entomological Society.
Villeneuve, J. 1914a. Etudes sur quelques types de myodaires suprieurs. Rev. Zool. Afr. 3:429-441.
Villeneuve, J. 1914b. Descriptions de nouveaux Calliphorinae africains (Dipt. ). Bull. Soc. Entomol. France: 305-308.
Vincent, C., D. K. McE. Kevan, M. Leclercq,m and C. L. Meek. 1985. A bibliography of forensic entomology. J. Med. Entomol. 22:212-219.
Vogt, W., and T. L. Woodburn. 1983. The analysis and standardization of trap catches of Lucilia cuprina (Diptera). Bull. Entomol. Res. 73:609-617.
Walker, F. 1849. Catalogue of the specimens of dipterous insects in the collection of the British museum. London. part 4: 699-1172.
Walker, F. 1856. Diptera. Insecta Saundersiana, 1.
Walker, F. 1858. Characters of undescribed Diptera in the collection of W. W. Saunders. Trans. Roy. Entomol. Soc. Lond. N. S. 4: 190-235.
Wells, J. D., and B. Greenberg. 1994. Effect of the red imported fire ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and carcass type on the daily occurrence of postfeeding carrion-fly larvae (Diptera: Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae). J. Med. Entomol. 31:171-174.
Wolff, M., A. Uribe, A. Ortiz, and P. Duque. 2001. A preliminary study of forensic entomology in Medellin, Columbia. Forensic Sci. Int. 120:53-59.
Welch J. 1988. Effect of trap placement on detection of Cochiomyia hominivorax (Diptera). J. Econ. Entomol. 81:241-245.
Wiedemann, C. R. W. 1819. Beschreibung neue zweiflugler aus Ostidien und Afrika. Zool. Mag. 1: 21-30.
Wiedemann, C. R. W. 1820. Nova Dipterorum Genera, Kiliae Holsatorum.
Wiedemann, C. R. W. 1824. Analecta Entomologica ex Museo Regio Havniensi. Kiliae.
Wiedemann, C. R. W. 1830. Aussereuropaische Zweiflugelige Insekten. 2: 384pp.