臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

飼糧添加各種抗氧化添加物對太平洋白對蝦（Litopenaeus vannamei）的生長、存活、抗氧化能力、免疫反應和氧化應激抗性之影響。7種添加物為蝦紅素（AX）、維生素A（VA）、皂苷萃取物（QS）、絲蘭萃取物（YS）、Nutrafito plus（NP為QS與YS之混合物）、辣木葉片（ML）以及辣木種子（MS）。添加物與基礎飼料混合構成具相同的diphenylpicrylhydrazyl（DPPH）抗氧化能力。將這7種添加物與不含添加物之控制組（C）投餵白蝦為期12週並進行三重複實驗。而後分析白蝦之生長、存活、抗氧化能力、免疫反應以及氧化應激抗性能力。實驗結果顯示處理組間活存率毫無差異。餵食添加物之白蝦成長較控制組好。相較於控制組，飼糧添加物可提高抗氧化能力如，超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、穀胱甘肽過氧化物酶（GPx）、谷胱甘肽還原酶（GR）、丙氨酸轉氨酶（ALT）、天冬氨酸轉氨酶（AST），並且提高免疫反應的呼吸爆（RB）。AX組具有最高的抗氧化能力，如SOD、GPx、GR和抗低氧能力，而C組為最低的。低氧壓力導致白蝦的GPx和AST提升，但對SOD以及ALT沒影響。添加物處理組顯示在無壓力下對RB有影響，然而低氧壓力下使得處理效應失效導致RB與血細胞總數（THC）呈無差異。低氧壓力下提升了葡萄糖（Gluc）和乳酸（Lac）但降低了甘油三酯（Trigs）。在壓力下，添加物處理組使Gluc，Trigs和Lac降低，溶氧致死濃度及時間相對於控制組皆較高、較長。然而，代謝反應在添加物處理組間毫無差異。總的來說，氧化劑以及植物萃取物在壓力下能促進白蝦成長，提高抗癌化能力以及抗低氧能力並且穩定代謝反應然而對其免疫僅稍有影響。

This study was aimed to determine the dietary effects of various antioxidant supplements on growth, survival, antioxidant capacity, immune response and oxidative stress resistance of Pacific white leg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. The seven supplements were astaxanthin (AX), vitamin A (VA), extract of Quillaja saponaria (QS), Yucca schidigera (YS), Nutrafito plus (NP, mix of QS and YS), leaves or seeds of Moringa oliefera (ML, MS). Each supplement was incorporated into a basal diet with the same diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) antioxidant capacity. These 7 treatment diets and a control diet (C) without supplement were fed to the shrimp in triplicates for 12 weeks. Shrimp’s growth, survival, antioxidant capacity, immune response and hypoxia stress resistance were evaluated. The treatments had no effect on survival. Shrimps fed with supplements had better growth performance than C fed shrimps. As compared to the control, the treatment diets resulted in higher antioxidant capacity, namely, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and immune response in respiratory burst (RB). AX shrimp had the highest and C shrimp the lowest antioxidant capacity in SOD, GPx and GR and resistance against hypoxia stress. Hypoxia stress increased shrimp’s GPx and AST, but had no effects on SOD and ALT. The treatments exhibited their effect on RB when under no stress, however, hypoxia stress overrode the treatment effect, causing no difference in RB and total haemocyte count (THC). Hypoxia stress increased glucose (Gluc) and lactate (Lac) and decreased triglycerides (Trigs). When under stress, treatments with supplements resulted in lower Gluc, Trigs and Lac and lethal dissolved oxygen level and longer lethal time than the control. However, there were no differences in those metabolic responses among treatments of the supplement. In conclusion, those antioxidants and plant extracts enhanced shrimp’s growth, antioxidant capacity and hypoxia stress resistance and stabilized their metabolic responses when under stress, however, only slightly affected their immune responses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………i
中文摘要………………………………………………………………………iii
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………v
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vi
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vii
1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUTE…………………………………………………………………………4
2.1 Litopenaeus vanamei………………………………………………………………………………………………4
2.2 Oxygen depletion on crustaceans………………………………………………………………4
2.3 Shrimp immunology……………………………………………………………………………………………………5
2.4 Antioxidant enzymes………………………………………………………………………………………………6
2.5 Metabolic response…………………………………………………………………………………………………7
2.6 Feed stuff………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7
2.6.1 Carotenoids in Aquaculture………………………………………………………………………7
2.6.2 Astaxanthin and its application…………………………………………………………8
2.6.3 Astaxanthin and its antioxidant effects……………………………………8
2.6.4 Phaffia rhodomyza………………………………………………………………………………………………9
2.7 Vitamin A and its application in aquaculture……………………………9
2.8 Saponins…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………10
2.8.1 Source of Commercial saponins and its application………10
2.9 Moringa……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
2.9.1 Scientific classification………………………………………………………………………11
2.9.2 Plant profile………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
2.9.3 Pharmacological properties …………………………………………………………………11
2.9.4 Nutrients and Phytochemicals present in
M. oleifera …………………………………………………………………………………………………………12
2.9.5 M. Oleifera seeds……………………………………………………………………………………………13
2.9.6 M. Oleifera leaves and seeds in aquaculture………………………14
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………………………………………………………………………………15
3.1 Sources of antioxidants used in the experiment……………………15
3.2 Basis of treatments……………………………………………………………………………………………15
3.2.1 Extraction method of used antioxidants……………………………………15
3.2.2 Evaluation of radical-scavenging activity of
antioxidant extracts……………………………………………………………………………………16
3.3 Diet formulations…………………………………………………………………………………………………16
3.4 Experimental Animal and Culture Conditions………………………………16
3.5 Parameters measure………………………………………………………………………………………………17
3.5.1 Survival and Growth performance………………………………………………………17
3.5.2 Proximate Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………17
3.5.3 Sample collection……………………………………………………………………………………………19
3.5.4 Non-stress and stress group…………………………………………………………………19
3.5.5 Biochemical analysis……………………………………………………………………………………19
3.6 Statistical Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………21
4. RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………22
4.1 Growth performance and survival……………………………………………………………22
4.2 Antioxidant Capacity…………………………………………………………………………………………23
4.3 Immune response………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
4.4 Metabolic response………………………………………………………………………………………………23
4.5 Oxygen depletion stress test……………………………………………………………………23
4.6 Correlation analysis among parameters……………………………………………24
4.7 Proximate analysis of shrimp flesh……………………………………………………24
5. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………25
5.1 Growth performance and survival……………………………………………………………25
5.2 Antioxidant Capacity…………………………………………………………………………………………25
5.3 Immune response………………………………………………………………………………………………………26
5.4 Metabolic response………………………………………………………………………………………………27
5.5 Oxygen depletion stress test……………………………………………………………………28
5.6 Correlation among parameters……………………………………………………………………28
6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………………………………29
7. REFERENCES. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………30

Afuang, W., Siddhuraju, P., Becker, K., 2003. Comparative nutritional evaluation of raw, methanol extracted residues and methanol extracts of moringa (Moringa oliefera lam.) leaves on growth performance and feed utilization in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.). Aquaculture Research, 34, 1147-1159.

Agrawal, A.K., Joshi, A.P., 1986. An ecological analysis of Malin riverain forest of outer Garhwal Himalaya (western Himalaya). Indian Journal of Ecology, 13, 150-210.

Alan, L., Miller, N.D., 1996. Antioxidant flavonoids, structure, function and clinical usage. Alternative Medicine Review, 1, 103-111.

Amar, E.C., Kiron, V., Satoh, S., Watanabe, T., 2001. Influence of various dietary synthetic carotenoids on bio-defence mechanisms in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). Aquaculture Research, 32, 162–173.

Arends, R.J., Mancera, J.M., Munoz, J.L., Wendelaar Bonga, S.E., 1999. The stress response of the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) to air exposure and confinement. Journal of Endocrinology, 163, 149- 157

Anwar, F., Latif, S., Ashraf, M., Gilani, A.H., 2007. Moringa oliefera: A food plant with multiple medicinal uses. Phytotheraphy Research, 21,17-25.

Anwar F., Rashid, U., 2007. Physico-chemical characteristics of Moringa oliefera seeds and oil form a wild provenance of Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 39, 1443-1453.

AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists), 1984. Official Method of Analysis, 14th edition, AOAC Arlinton, VA., 1141 pp.

Ayotunde, E. O., Fagbenro, O.A., Adebao, O.T., Osho, B.I., 2006. Histological changes in the African catfish Clarias gariepenus, exposed to aqueous extract of drumstick, Moringa oliefera, seeds. Biology and Environmental Science Journal for the Tropics, 3, 13-24.

Bachere, E., Mialhe, E., Noel, D., Boulo, V., Morvan, A., Rodriguez, J., 1995. Knowledge and research prospects in marine mollusk and crustacean immunology. Aquaculture, 132, 17-32.

Bamishaiye, E.I., Olayemi, F.F., Awagu, E.F., Bamshaiye, O.M., 2011. Proximate and phytochemical composition of Moringa oliefera leaves at three stages of maturation. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 3, 233-237.

Barton, B.A., 2002. Stress in Fishes: A diversity of responses with particular reference to changes in circulating corticosteroids. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42, 517-525.

Bell, J.G., J. McEvoy, D.R. Tocher and J.R. Sargent, 2000. Depletion of α-tocopherol and astaxanthin in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) affects autoxidative defense and fatty acid metabolism. American Society for Nutritional Sciences, 1800-1807

Bennett, R.N., Mellon, F.A., Foidl, N., Pratt, J.H., Dupoint, S.M., Perkins, L., Kroon, P.A., 2003. Profiling glucosinolates and phenolics in vegetative and reproductive tissues of the multi-purpose trees M. oliefera L. (Horseradish Tree) and Moringa stenopetala L. Journal of Agricultural Food and Chemistry, 52, 3546-3558.

Barton, B. A., Iwama, G.K., 1991. Physiological changes in fish from stress in aquaculture with emphasis on the response and effects of corticosteroids. Annual Review of Fish Diseases, 1, 3-26.

Biagini, G., Sala, D., Zini, I., 1995. Diethyldithiocarbamate, a superoxide dismutase inhibitor, counteracts the maturation of ischemic-like lesions caused by endothelin – 1 intrastrialtal injection. Neuroscience Letters, 190, 27-43.

Cheeke, P. R., 2000. Actual and potential application of Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria saponins in human and animal nutrition. Proceedings of Phytochemical Society of Europe, 45, 241-254.

Cheeke, P.R., 2009. Applications of saponins as feed additives in poultry production. Poultry industry.

Chien, Y.H., Chien, I.M., Pan, C.H., Kurmaly, K., 1999. Oxygen depletion stress on mortality and lethal course of juvenile tiger prawn Penaeus monodon fed high level of dietary astaxanthin.
Journal of Fisheries Society in Taiwan, 26, 85–93.

Chien, Y-H., Pan, C-H., Hunter, B., 2003. The resistance to physical stresses by Penaeus monodon juveniles fed diets supplemented with astaxanthin. Aquaculture, 21, 177-191.

Choi J., Oris J.T., 2000. Evidence for oxidative stress in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) liver microsomes simultaneously exposed to solar ultraviolet radiation and anthracene. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 19, 1795-1799.

Cuendet, M., Hostettmann, K., Potterat, O., 1997. Iridoid glucosides with free radical scavenging properties from Fagraea blumei. Helvetica Chimica Acta, 80, 1144-1152.

Choubert G., 2010. Response of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to varying dietary astaxanthin/canthaxanthin ratio: colour and carotenoid retention of the muscle. Aquaculture Nutrition, 16, 528-535.

Chang, J.S., 2007. Effects of dietary lipid and astaxanthin on growth, survival, oxygen consumption and antioxidation capacity of Litopenaeus vannamei. Department of Aquaculture. National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, pp. 111.

Cohen, G.M., Doherty, M., 1987. Free radical mediated cell toxicity by redox cycling chemicals. British Journal of Cancer 55 (Suppl. VIII), 46–52.

Coz-Rakovac, R., Popovic, N.T., Smuc, T., 2008. Classification accuracy of algorithms for blood chemistry data for three aquaculture-affected marine fish species. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 35, 641-647.

Cotgreave, I.A., Gerdes, R.G., 1998. Recent trends in glutathione biochemistry-glutathione protein interactions: a molecular link between oxidative stress and cell proliferation. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 242, 1-9.

Cuesta, A., Esteban, M. A. &; Meseguer, J., 2002. Natural cytotoxic activity in seabream (Sparus aurata L.) and its modulation by vitamin C. Fish &; Shellfish Immunology, 13, 97–109.
Czeczuga, B., 1979. Carotenoids in fish: XIX. Carotenoids in the eggs of Oncorhynchus keta. Hydrobiologia, 63, 45–47.

Davis, D.A., Tzachi, M., Samocha and Boyd, C.E., 2004. Acclimating Pacific white shrimp, Litopeneaus vannamei, to inland, low-salinity waters. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center. SRAC Publication No. 2601.

Fahey, J.W., 2005. Moringa oliefera: A review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties, Part 1. Trees for Life Journal, 1:5.

FAO, 2012. Aquaculture topics and activities. Aquaculture. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online]. Rome. Updated 3 February 2012. [Cited 15 February 2012]. http://www.fao.org/fishery/aquaculture/en

Fenwick, G.R., Price, K.R., Tsukamoto, C., Okubo, K., 1991. Saponins. In: Mello, F.J.P.D., Duffus, C.M., Duffus, J.H. (Eds.), Saponins in toxic substances in crop plants. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 285-327.

Flores, M., Diaz, F., Medina, R., Denisse, A., Licea, A., 2007. Physiological, metabolic and haematological responses in white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) juveniles fed diets supplemented with astaxanthin acclimated to low-salinity water. Aquaculture Research, 38, 740-747.

Francis G., Makkar H.P.S., Becker K., 2002. Dietary supplementation with a Quillaja saponaria mixture improves growth performance and metabolic efficiency in common carp. Aquaculture, 203, 311-320.

Fridovich I. 1995. Superoxide radical and superoxide dismutases. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 64, 97–112.

Funkenstein, B., 2001. Developmental expression, tissue distribution and hormonal regulation of fish (Sparus aurata) serum retinol-binding protein. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 129, 613–622

Fuglie, L.J., 1999. The Miracle Tree: Moringa oleifera: Natural Nutrition for the Tropics, Church World Service, Dakar, p. 68; Revised in 2001 and Published as The Miracle Tree: The Multiple Attributes of Moringa, p. 172.

Gaber, M.M., 2006. The effects of plant-protein based diets supplemented with yucca on growth, digestibility, and chemical composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus, L) fingerlings. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 37, 74-81.

Galeotti, F., Barile, E., Curir, P., Dolci, M., Lanzotti, V., 2008. Flavonoids from carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) and their antifungal activity. Phytochemistry Letters, 1:44.

Garg, M.C., Ojha, S., Bansal, D.D., 1996. Antioxidant status of streptozotocin diabetic rats. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 34, 264-266.

Grabow, W.O.K., Slabbert, J.L., Morgan, W.S.G., Jahn, S.A.A., 1985. Toxicity and mutagenicity evaluation of water coagulated with Moringa oliefera seed preparation using fish protozoan, bacterial coliphage, enzyme and salmonella assay. CAB Abstract.

Grandon, A.S., Espinosa, B.M., Rios, D.L., Sanchez, O.M., Saez, C.K., Hernandez, S.V., Becerra, A.J., 2013. Variation of saponin contents and physiological status in Quillaja saponaria under different environmental conditions. Natural Product Communication, 8, 1697-1700.

Guerin, M., Hosokawa, H., 2001. Pigmentation of red seabream with natural astaxanthin derived from the alga Haematococcus pluvialis comparison with synthethic astaxanthin. Conference Aquaculture 2001. Book of abstracts. p. 263. Lake Buena Vista FL. USA.

Hadi, A.A., Shokr, A.F., Alwan, S.F., 2009. Effects of aluminum on the biochemical parameters of fresh water fish, Tilapia zillii. Journal of Applied Science, 3, 33-41.

Hall, M.R., Van Ham, E.H., 1998. The effects of different types of stress on blood glucose
in the giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon. Journal of World Aquaculture Society, 29, 290–299.

Halliwell, B., Gutteridge, J.M.C., 1984. Oxygen toxicity, oxygen radicals, transition metals and disease. Biochemistry Journal, 219, 1-14.

Haselmair, A., Stachowitsch M., Zuschin M., Riedel B., 2010. Behaviour and mortality of benthic crustaceans in response to experimentally induced hypoxia and anoxia in situ. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 414, 195-208.

Hassan, F.A.G., Ibrahim, M.A., 2013. Moringa oliefera: Nature is most nutritious and multi-purpose tree. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 3, 1-5.

Hayek M.G., 2000. Dietary vitamin E improves immune function in cats. In Reinhart G.A and Carey D.P. Eds. Recent Advances in Canine and Feline Nutrition, Iams Nutrition Symposium Proceedings.

Higuera-Ciapara, I., Felix-Valenzuela, L., Goycoolea, F.M., 2006. Astaxanthin: A review of its chemistry and applications. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46, 85–196.

Hollaman, P.C., 2001. Evidence for health benefits of plant phenols: Local or systemic effects?. Journal of Science Food and Agriculture, 81, 842-852.

Jee, J., Lim, S., Park, J., Kim, C., 2006. Stabilization of all-trans retinol by loading lipophilic antioxidants in solid lipid nanoparticles. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 63,134–139

Ji, P.F., Yao, C.L., Wang, Z.Y., 2004. Immune response and gene expression in shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) hemocytes and hepatopancreas against some pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Fish &; Shellfish Immunology, 27, 63-570.

Johansson, M.W., and Soderhall, K., 1989. Cellular immunity in crustacean and the proPO system. Parasitology Today, 5, 171-176.

Jyonouchi, H., Sun, S.;Gross, M., 1995. Effect of carotenoids on in vitro immunoglobulin production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells: astaxanthin, a carotenoid without vitamin A activity, enhances in vitro immunoglobulin production in response to a T-dependent stimulant and antigen. Nutrition and Cancer, 23, 171-183.

Jyonouchi, H., Zhang L., Gross, M., Tomita, Y., 1994. Immunomodulating actions of carotenoids: Enhancement of in vivo and in vitro antibody production to T‐dependent antigens. Nutrition and Cancer, 21, 47-58.

Karnaukhov, V.N., 1979. The role of filtrator mollusks rich in carotenoid in the self-cleaning of fresh waters. Symposium Biological Hungarica, 19, 151–167

Khalafalla, M.M., Abdellatef, E., Daffalla, H.M., Nassrallah, A.A., Aboul-Eneinm, K.M., Lightfoot D.A., Cocchetto, A., El-shemy H.A., 2009. Antileukemia activity from root cultures of Vernonia Amygdalina. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 3, 556-562.

Kasolo, J.N., Gabriel, S., Bimenya, L.O., Joseph, O., Ogwal-Okeng, J.W., 2010. Phytochemicals and uses of Moringa oliefera leaves in Ugandan rural communities. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 4, 753-757.

Kumwar, V., Abbas, A.K., Fausto, N., Robbins, S.L., Cotran, R.S., 2004. Pathology basis of disease. New York.

Le Moullac, G., Soyez, C., Saulnier, D., Ansquer, D., Avarre, J.C., Levy, P., 1998. Effect of hypoxia stress on the immune response and the resistance to vibriosis of the shrimp Penaeus stylirostris. Fish Shellfish Immunology, 8, 621-629.

Leopold, J.A., Loscalzo, J., 2000. Cyclic strain modulates resistance to oxidant stress by increasing G6PDH expression in smooth muscle cells. American Journal of Physiology, 279, 2477-2485.

Lyons, N.M., O’Brien, N.M., 2002. Modulatory effects of an algal extract containing astaxanthin on UVA-irradiated cells in culture. Journal of Dermatological Science, 30, 73-84.

Lushchak, V.I., Lushchak, L.P., Mota, A.A., Hermes-Lima, M., 2001. Oxidative stress and antioxidant defenses in goldfish Carassius auratus during anoxia and reoxygenation. American Journal of Physiology, 280, R100–R107.

Maden M., 1993. The homeotic transformation of tails into limbsin Rana temporaria by retinoids. Developmental Biology, 159,379–391.

Martinez-Lara, E., Toribio, F., Lopez-Barea, J., Barcena, J.A., 1996. Glutathione-S-transferase isoenzyme patterns in the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) exposed to environmental contaminants. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 113C, 215-220.

Mcburney, R.P.H., Griffin, C., Paul, A.A., Greenberg, D.C., 2004. The nutritional composition of African wild food plants: from compilation to utilization. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 17, 277-289.

Mengqing, L., Wenjuan, J., 1998. Study on nutrional requirement of vitamin a for Chinese prawn Penaeus chinensis larva. Marine Fisheries Research.

Miki, W. 1991. Biological functions and activities of animal carotenoids. Pure &; Applied Chemistry, 63, 141-146.

Mommsen, T.P., Vijayan, M.M., Moon, T.W., 1999. Cortisol in teleosts: dynamics, mechanisms of action, and metabolic regulation. Review in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 9, 211-268.

Monari, M., Matozzo, V., Foschi, J., Marin, M.G., Cattani, O., 2005. Exposure to anoxia of the clam, Chamelea gallina: II: Modulation of superoxide dismutase activity and expression in haemocytes. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 325, 175-188.

Mourente, G., Diaz-Salvago, E., Bell, J.G., Tocher, D.R., 2002. Increased activities of hepatic antioxidant defence enzymes in juvenile gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) fed dietary oxidised oil: attenuation by dietary vitamin E. Aquaculture, 214, 343-361.

Naguib, Y.M.A., 2000. Antioxidant activities of astaxanthin and related carotenoids. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 48, 1150-1154.

Nakano, T., Kanmuri, T., Sato,M., Takeuchi, M., 1999. Effect of astaxanthin rich yeast (Phaffia rhodozyma) on oxidative stress in rainbow trout. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – General Subjects, 1426, 119-125.

Ndong, M., Uehara, M., Katsumata, S., Suzuki, K., 2007. Effects of oral administration of Moringa oliefera lam on glucose tolerance in goto-kakizaki and wistar rats. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition, 40, 229-233.

Niciforovic, N., Mihailovic, V., Maskovic, P., Solujic, S., Stojkovic, A., Pavlovic Muratspahic, D., 2010. Antioxidant activity of selected plant species; potential new sources of natural antioxidants. Food Chemistry and Toxicology, 48, 3125-3130.

Niu, J., Tian, L.X., Liu, Y.J., 2009. Effect of dietary astaxanthin on growth, survival and stress tolerance of postlarval shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. Journal of World Aquaculture Society, 40, 795-802.

Niu, J., Tian, L.X., Lin, H.Z., 2011. Carotenoids in aquaculture-an overview. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 2, 44-58.

Nordberg, J., Arner, E.S.J., 2001. Reactive oxygen species, antioxidants, and the mammalian thioredoxin system. Free Radical Biology and Medicines, 31, 1287-12312.

Oakenful, D., Sidhu, G.S., 1989. Saponins. In: Cheeke, P.R. (Ed.), Toxicants of Plant Origin. Academic Press, New York, 2, 78-113.

Oda, T., 1990. In: Oda, T. (Ed.). The Biology of Liver. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 26–31.

Oda, K., Matsuda, H., Murakami, T., Katayama, S., Ohgitani, T., Yoshikawa, M., 2003. Relationship between adjuvant activity and amphipathic structure of soyasaponins. Vaccine, 21, 2145-2151.
Ogbunugafor, H.A., Eneh., F.U., Ozumba, A.N., Igwo-Ezikpe, M.N., Okpuzor, J., Igwilo, I.O., Adenekan, S.O., Onyekwelu, O.A., 2011. Physico-chemical and anti-oxidant properties of Moringa oleifera seed oil. In Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 10, 409-414.

Olugbemi, T.S., Mutayoba, S.K., Lekule, F.P., 2010. Effect of Moringa (Moringa oliefera) inclusion in cassava based diets fed to broiler chickens. International Journal of Poultry Science, 9, 363-367.

Ozaki, H., 1978. In: Itaxawa, Y., Hanyu, I., Hibiya, K. (Eds.), Diagnosis of fish health by blood analysis. Koseisya Koseikaku Respiration and Circulation of Fish, vol. 24. Tokyo, Chaper 5.

Palace, V.P., Khaper, N., Qin, Q., Singal, P.K., 1999. Antioxidant potentials of vitamin A and carotenoids and their relevance to heart disease. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 26, 746–761.

Pan, C-H., Chien, Y-H., Hunter, B., 2003. Alterations of antioxidant capacity and hepatopancreatic enzymes in Penaeus monodon (Fabricus) juveniles fed diets supplemented with astaxanthin and exposed to Vibio damsela challenge. Journal of Fisheries Society in Taiwan, 30, 279-290.

Palacious, E., Ibarra, A. M. Racotta, I. S., 2000. Tissue biochemical composition in relation to multiple spawning in wild and pond-reared Penaeus vannamei broodstock. Aquaculture, 185, 353-371.

Pashkow, F.J., Watumull, D.G., Campbell, C.L., 2008. Astaxanthin: a novel potential treatment for oxidative stress and inflammation in cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Cardiology, 101: 58D-68D.

Pepe, I.M., 1999. Rhodopsin and phototransduction. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B. Biology, 48, 1–10.

Piacente, S., Montoro, P., Oleszek, W., Pizza C., 2004. Yucca schidigera bark: phenolic constituents and antioxidant activity. Journal of Natural Products, 67, 882-885.

Piacente, S., Pizza, C., Oleszek, W., 2005. Saponins and phenolics of Yucca schidigera Roezl: Chemistry and bioactivity. Phytochemistry Review, 4, 177-190.

Pottinger, T. G., 1998. Changes in blood cortisol, glucose and lactate in carp retained in anglers’ keepnets. Journal Fish Biology, 53, 728-742.

Richter, N., Siddhuraju, P., Becker, K., 2003. Evaluation of the quality of (Moringa oliefera lam.) leaves as an alternative protein source for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.). Aquaculture, 217, 599-611.

Rodriguez-Saiz, M., de la Fuente, J.L., Barredo, J.L., 2010. Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous for the industrial production of astaxanthin. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 88, 645-658.

Ross, S.A., Caffery, P.J., Draguer, U.C., De Luca, L.M., 2000. Retinoids in embryonal development. Physiological Reviews, 80, 1021–1054.

Santocono, M., Zurria, M., Berrettini, M., Fedeli, D., Falcioni, G., 2007. Lutien, zeathin and astaxanthin protect against DNA damage in SK-N-SH human neuroblastoma cells induced by reactive nitrogen species. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 88, 1-10.

Schiedt, K., 1998. Absorption and metabolism of carotenoids in birds, fish and crustaceans. In: Carotenoids Biosynthesis and Metabolism, Britton, G., S. Liaaen-Jensen and H. Pfander (Eds.), Birkh#westeur037#user: Basel,Switzerland, 285-358.

Scholz, U., Garcia Diaz, G., Ricque, D., Cruz Suarez, L.E., Vargas Albores, F., Latchford, J., 1999. Enhancement of vibriosis resistance in juvenile Penaues vannamei by supplementation of diets with different yeast products. Aquaculture, 176, 271-283.

Serrano, A.E., 2012. Effects of Quillaja saponins on growth, feed efficiency, digestive enzyme activities and metabolism of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L). Aquaculture Nutrition, 19, 468-474.

Shahidi, F., A. Metusalach and J.A. Brown, 1998. Carotenoid pigments in seafood and aquaculture. Critical Reviews of Food Science and Nutrition, 38, 1-67.

Smith, V.J., S#westeur055#derhall, K., Hamilton M., 1984. β-1,3-glucan induced cellular defence reactions in the shore crab, Carcinus maenus. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular &; Integrative Physiology, 77, 635–639.

Smolin, L.A., Grosvenor, M.B., 2007. Nutrition: Science &; Application.

Storebakken, T., Sorensen, M., Bjerkeng, B., Hiu, S., 2004. Utilization of astaxanthin from red yeast, Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss: effects of enzymatic cell wall disruption and feed extrusion temperature. Aquaculture, 236, 391-403.

Storey, K.B., 1996. Oxidative stress: animal adaptations in nature. Brazilian Journal Medicine Biologial Research, 29, 1715-1733.

Theopold, U., Schmidt, O., So¨ derha¨ll, K., Dushay, M.S., 2004. Coagulationin arthropods: defence, wound closure and healing. Trends Immunology, 25, 289 – 294.

Truscott, R., White, K.N., 1990. The influence of metal and temperature stress on the immune system of crabs. Functional Ecology, 4, 455-461.

Tsin, A.T.C., Beatty, D.D., 1979. Scotopic visual pigment composition in the retinas and vitamins A in the pigment epithelium of the goldfish. Experimental Eye Research, 29, 15 – 26.

Tsing, A., Arcier, J.M., Brehelin, M., 1989. Hemocytes of penaied and palaemonid shrimps: Morphology, cytochemistry, and hemograms. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 55, 64-77.

Wadhwa, S., Panwar, M.S., Navdeep, Saini, N., Rawat, S., Singhal, S., 2013. A review on commercial, traditional uses, phytoconstituents and pharmacological activity of Moringa oliefera. Global Journal of Traditional Medicinal Systems, 2, 1-13.

Wang, Y-J., Chien, Y-H., Pan, C-H., 2006. Effects of dietary supplementation of carotenoids on survival, growth, pigmentation, and antioxidant capacity of charcins, Hyphessobrycon callistus. Aquaculture, 261, 641-648.

Welker, A.F., Moreira, D.C., Campos, G.E., Lima, M.H., 2013. Role of redox metabolism for adaptation of aquatic animals to drastic changes in oxygen availability. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular &; Integrative Physiology, 165, 384-404.

Williams, R.J., Spencer, J.P., Rice-Evans, C., 2004. Flavonoids: antioxidants or signaling molecules? Free Radical Biology and Medicines, 36, 838-849.

Winston, G.W., Di Giulo, R.T., 1991. Prooxidant and antioxidant mechanisms in aquatic organisms. Aquatic Toxicology, 19, 137-161.

Wu, R.S.S., 2002. Hypoxia: from molecular responses to ecosystem responses. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 45, 35-45.

Yamamoto, Y., 1981. Determination of toxicity by biochemical method. In: Egami, N. (Ed.), Fishes as Laboratory Animals; Soft Science. Tokyo, Chapter 4.
Yao, C.L., Wu, C.G., Xiang, J.H., Dong, B., 2005. Molecular cloning and response to laminarin stimulation of arginine kinase in haemolymp in Chinese shrimp, Fenneropenaeus chinensis. Fish &; Shellfish Immunology, 19, 317-329.

Yeh, S. P., C. H. Liu, T. G. Sung, P. P. Lee &; W. Cheng. 2006. Effect of saponin on hematological and immunological parameters of the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Aquaculture, 261, 1432–1439.

Yoganandhan, K., Sathish, S., Murugan, V., Narayanan, R.B., Sahul Hameed, A.S., 2003. Screening the organs for early detection of white spot syndrome virus in Penaeus indicus by histopathology and PCR techniques. Aquaculture, 215, 21-29.

Yoshiki, Y., Kudou, S., Okubo, K., 1998. Relationship between chemical structures and biological activities of triterpenoid saponins from soybean (review). Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry, 62.

Yuan, C., Du, L., Jin, Z., Xu, X., 2013. Storage stability and antioxidant activity of complex of astaxanthin with hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin. Carbohydrate Polymer, 91, 385–389.

Yuangsoi, B., Masumoto, T., 2012. Replacing moringa leaf (Moringa oliefera) partially by protein replacement in soybean meal of fancy carp (Cyprinus carpio). Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology, 34, 479-485.