臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

近年來全球對於環境保護意識逐漸高漲，WTO各會員基於保護動植物及人類生命健康、促進公共衛生等合法目的，就產品制訂一定的規格或標準，以確保政策目的之達成，惟此些措施對於國際貿易可能造成不必要的限制，有違WTO下之TBT協定。其中，TBT協定第2.2條規範WTO會員制訂技術性法規時需遵循「必要性」原則，即會員國應確保其為達到合法目的所擬訂、採行或適用之國內法，不得對國際貿易造成不必要之障礙或產生該等效果，且會員制訂之技術性法規對貿易之限制不應較為達成合法目的所必須者嚴格，惟TBT協定未明訂必要性要件之判斷基準。
WTO協定中，GATT 1994第20條第b款文字與TBT協定第2.2條文字與內容極為相似，但此二條文的必要性要件得否採相同的解釋方式，WTO相關協定並無規範。WTO爭端解決機構曾多次裁決GATT 1994第20條第b款之必要性審查基準，本文依循GATT與WTO案件發生之時間順序，觀察爭端解決機構對於GATT 1994第20條第b款與TBT協定第2.2條有關必要性要件之裁決，以釐清爭端解決機構判斷TBT協定第2.2條必要性要件基準之脈絡，推論其採取此解釋方式之原因，並提出本文認為TBT協定第2.2條必要性要件較妥適之審查標準，以了解未來WTO會員若為保護其國內人類、動植物生命或身體健康等目的立法時，相關法規之政策空間為何。

Due to the consciousness raising of environmental protection recently, WTO members legislate for regulations which aim at protecting human, animals and plants' lives and health. However, it may result in trade barriers and be inconsistent with TBT Agreement. Article 2.2 of TBT Agreement regulates that WTO members shall comply with the necessity concept when legislating technical regulations, inter alia: Members shall ensure that technical regulations are not prepared, adopted or applied with a view to or with the effect of creating unnecessary obstacles to international trade and technical regulations shall not be more trade-restrictive than necessary to fulfil a legitimate objective. However, TBT Agreement does not regulate how to judge necessity test.
Among WTO agreements, article XX(b) of GATT 1994 and article 2.2 of TBT Agreement have similar words and contents, but WTO agreements do not define the necessity test and do not regulate whether these two provisions can be interpreted in the same way. WTO dispute settlement body had ruled the necessity test in article XX(b) of GATT 1994 several times. This thesis chronicled the jurisdiction in order to clarify how WTO dispute settlement body interpreted the necessity test of these two provisions. This thesis also brought up the proper interpretation of necessity test in article 2.2 of TBT Agreement to comprehend how much the policy space left to WTO members.

第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究動機與目的 1
第二節 研究範圍與限制 3
第三節 研究方法 5
第四節 研究架構 5
第二章 GATT 1994第20條第b款下之「必要性」概念 7
第一節 GATT 1994第20條第b款必要性審查之客體 8
第二節 GATT 1994第20條第b款審查之範圍與政策目標 8
第三節 GATT 1994第20條第b款之相關案例 10
第一項 GATT時期 10
第一款 泰國香菸案 10
第二款 美國鮪魚案I 12
第三款 美國鮪魚案II 13
第二項 WTO時期 15
第一款 美國石油案 15
第二款 歐體石棉案 16
第三款 巴西輪胎案 19
第四款 中國原物料案 23
第四節 小結 26
第三章 TBT協定第2.2條下之「必要性」概念 26
第一節 TBT協定第2.2條「必要性」要件審查之客體 26
第二節 TBT協定第2.2條之政策目標與審查範圍 27
第三節 TBT協定第2.2條之相關案例 28
第一項 美國丁香菸案 28
第二項 美國鮪魚案 35
第三項 美國肉品標示案 41
第四節 小結 44
第四章 GATT第20條第b款與TBT協定第2.2條「必要性」要件之分析 45
第一節 GATT第20條與TBT第2.2條之條文比較 45
第一項 GATT 1994與TBT協定 46
第二項 GATT 1994第20條第b款與TBT協定第2.2條 48
第一款 審查客體 48
第二款 舉證責任 49
第三款 政策目標 49
第二節 爭端解決機構對於GATT 1994第20條第b款與TBT第2.2條必要
性要件是否採相同解釋方式 50
第三節 TBT第2.2條下必要性要件之解釋方式 53
第一項 WTO案件 53
第二項 對於TBT協定第2.2條必要性要件較妥適之解釋方式 53
第三項 WTO爭端解決機構採用GATT 1994第20條第b款必要性要
件法理之因 57
第四節 小結 59
第五章 結論 61
參考文獻 64

一、中文部分
（一）專書：
1. 羅昌發，國際貿易法，2010年。

（二）期刊論文：
1. 牛惠之，環境保護與GATT /WTO：由涉及環境議題之 GATT /WTO 爭端解決小組報告，論相關於環境之片面貿易措施之適用範圍與限制，經社法制論叢，23期，1999年。

二、英文部分
（一）專書：
1. MITSUO MATSUSHITA, THOMAS J. SCHEONBAUM &; PETROS C. MAVROIDIS, THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION: LAW, PRACTICE, AND POICY (2003).
2. ERNST-ULRICH PETERSMANN, INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN TRADE AND ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AFTER THE URUGUAY ROUND (1996).
3. DIANA RIDLEY, THE LITERATURE REVIEW: A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE FOR STUDENTS (2008).
4. GEORGE A. BERMANN &; PETROS C. MAVROIDIS, TRADE AND HUMAN HEALTH AND SAFETY (2006).

（二）期刊文章：
1.Gabrielle Marceau &; Joel P. Trachtman, The Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement, the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, in 36(5) JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE (2002).
2. Kohei Saito, Yardsticks for "Trade and Environment": Economic Analysis of the WTO Panel and the Appellate Body Reports regarding Environment-oriented Trade Measures, in THE JEAN MONNET WORKING PAPERS, available at http://centers.law.nyu.edu/jeanmonnet/archive/papers/01/013701-03.html (2001).
3. Daniel Drache, The Short but Significant Life of the International Trade Organization: Lessons for Our Time, in CENTRE FOR CANADIAN STUDIES, YORK UNIVERSITY, CSGR WORKING PAPER NO. 62/00, available at http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/2063/1/WRAP_Drache_wp6200.pdf (2000).
4. Danielle Spiegel Feld &; Stephanie Switzer, Whither Article XX? Regulatory Autonomy under Non-GATT Agreements after China-Raw Materials, in YALE JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW ONLINE (2012).
5. Jennifer Schultz, The GATT/WTO Committee on Trade and the Environment--Toward Environmental Reform, in Vol. 89, No. 2 423-439 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW (1995).
6. Michael Ming Du, Domestic Regulatory Autonomy under the TBT Agreement: From Non-discrimination to Harmonization, in Vol. 6, No. 2, 269–306 CHINESE JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW (2007).
7. Benn Mcgrady, Necessity Exceptions in WTO Law: Retreaded Tyres, Regulatory Purpose and Cumulative Regulatory Measures, in 12(1), 153-173 Journal of International Economic Law (2008).
8. Sanford Gaines, The WTO's Reading of the GATT Article XX Chapeau: A Disguised Restriction on Environmental Measures, in U. PA. 1. INT'L ECON. L (2000).
9. Alan 0. Sykest, The Least Restrictive Means, in VOL. 70, NO. 1 403-419 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LAW REVIEW (2003).
10. Robert Galantucci, Compassionate Consumerism within the GATT Regime: Can Belgium's Ban on Seal Product Imports be justified under Article XX?, in CALIFORNIA WESTERN INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL (2009).
11. Mads Andenas &; Stefan Zleptnig, Proportionality: WTO Law: in Comparative Perspective, in VOL. 42:371 TEXAS INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL.
12. Axel Desmedt, Proportionality in WTO Law, in Journal of International Economic Law (2001).
13. Meinhard Hilf, Power, Rules and Principles- Which Orientation for WTO/GATT Law?, in JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC LAW (2001).
14. Carrie Ross, In the Hot House: Will Canada's WTO Challenge Slaughter U.S. COOL Regulations?, in BROOKLYN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW (2010).
15. Gisele Kapterian, A Critique of the WTO Jurisprudence on ‘Necessity’, in VOL. 59:89 (2010).
16. Thomas J. Schoenbaum, International Trade and Protection of the Environment: The Continuing Search for Reconciliation, in THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW (1997).
17. Kazumochi Kometani, Trade and Environment: How Should WTO Panels Review Environmental Regulations under GATT Article III and XX?, in NORTHWESTERN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND BUSINESS (1996).
18. Jan Neumann &;Elisabeth Turk, Necessity Revisited: Proportionality in World Trade Organization Law after Korea-Beef, EC-Asbestos and EC-Sardines, in JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE (2003).
19. Gabrielle Marceau, The New TBT Jurisprudence in US - Clove Cigarettes, WTO US - Tuna II, and US - COOL, in ASIAN JOURNAL OF WTO &; INTERNATIONAL HEALTH LAW &; POLICY (2013).
20. Lawrence A. Kogan, Reach Revisited: A Framework for Evaluating Whether a Non-Tariff Measure Has Matured into an Actionable Non-Tariff to Trade, in AMERICAN UNIVERSITY INTERNATIONAL LAW REVIEW (2013).

（三）GATT / WTO文件：
1. Annual Review of the Implementation and Operation of the Agreement, G/TBT/7, G/TBT/8, G/TBT/10, G/TBT/11, G/TBT/12....
2. WTO, MTN/3E/W/26(Oct. 1974), TRE/W/21(Jan. 17, 1994).
3. Panel Report, Thailand — Restrictions on importation of and internal taxes on cigarettes, BISD 37S/200 (adopted Nov. 7 1990).
4. Panel Report, United States – Restrictions on imports of tuna, BISD 39S/155 (Sept. 3 1991).
5. Panel Report, United States – Restrictions on imports of tuna, BISD 29/R (June 16 1994).
6. Appellate Body Report, United States — Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, WT/DS2/AB/R (adopted May 20, 1996).
7. Appellate Body Report, European Communities — Measures Affecting Asbestos and Products Containing Asbestos, WT/DS135/AB/R (adopted Apr. 5, 2001).
8. Appellate Body Report, Brazil－Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres, WT/DS332/AB/R (adopted Dec. 17, 2007).
9. Appellate Body Report, China — Measures Related to the Exportation of Various Raw Materials, WT/DS394/AB/R (adopted Feb. 22, 2012).
10. Appellate Body Report, United States－Measures Affecting the Production and Sale of Clove Cigarettes, WT/DS406/AB/R (adopted Apr. 24, 2012).
11. Appellate Body Report, United States－Measures Concerning the Importation, Marketing and Sale of Tuna and Tuna Products, WT/DS381/AB/R (adopted June 13, 2012).
12. Appellate Body Report, United States－Certain Country of Origin Labelling (COOL) Requirements, WT/DS384/AB/R and WT/DS386/AB/R (adopted July 23, 2012).
13. Panel Report, United States－Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, L/6439 (Nov. 7, 1989).
14. Appellate Body Report, Korea – Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh, Chilled and Frozen Beef , ¶ 5.26, WT/DS161/AB/R (adopted Jan. 10, 2001).
15. Panel Report, European Communities－Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas, WT/DS27/AB/R (adopted Sept. 25, 1997).
16. Appellate Body Report, Australia — Measures Affecting Importation of Salmon, WT/DS18/AB/R (adopted Nov. 6, 1998).
17. Appellate Body Report, Japan — Measures Affecting Agricultural Products, WT/DS76/AB/R (adopted Mar. 19, 1999).
18. Appellate Body Report, Australia — Measures Affecting the Importation of Apples from New Zealand, WT/DS367/AB/R (adopted Dec. 17, 2010).
19. Panel Report, European Communities－Trade Description of Sardines, WT/DS231/R (adopted Oct. 23, 2002).
20. Appellate Body Report, United States－Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/AB/R (adopted Apr. 20, 2005).
21. Appellate Body Report, China — Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products, WT/DS363/AB/R (adopted Jan. 19, 2010).