臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

台灣地區在1994年高中生吸菸率10.7％，到了2005年是13.99％，青少年吸菸率有逐年上升的趨勢，大多數的吸菸青少年到了成人時期仍會持續吸菸，其主要造成原因是尼古丁依賴。但目前國內缺乏青少年吸菸依賴量表之檢測工具，因此無法針對青少年進行吸菸依賴評估。本研究選用兩個國外常用的青少年吸菸依賴量表在台灣進行翻譯和測試，Dimensions of Tobacco Dependence Scale（DTDS）及Hooked On Nicotine Checklist（HONC）量表，藉此了解這些量表在國內吸菸青少年的適用性。本研究設計為橫斷之描述性研究，採立意取樣，研究對象為中、南部九所高中職學校的吸菸學生，有效樣本共293位。效度評估方面，DTDS與HONC量表的專家內容效度指標值，分別為0.92與1。另外，採用吸菸依賴之重要生理指標，呼出一氧化碳、唾液的古丁尼濃度以及Fagerstrom Test of Nicotine Dependence (FTND)量表，做為效標關聯效度的檢定，結果DTDS、HONC量表與呼氣一氧化碳之相關，分別為.13 (p<.05)、.09；與唾液古丁尼之相關，分別為.31 (p<.01)、.23 (p<.01)；與FTND量表之相關，分別為.57 (p<.01)、.59 (p<.01)。建構效度是進行吸菸依賴量表之探索性因素分析，結果DTDS量表是二個因素結構，可解釋36.57％的變異量，HONC量表則是一個因素結構，可解釋35％的變異量。信度評估方面，是進行內在一致性檢測，由於DTDS量表為連續性分數，其Cronbach alpha為0.95，HONC採二分計分，其KR-20為0.84。因此DTDS及HONC量表在國內進行的測試結果，都呈現不錯的信效度，未來研究可以使用這二個量表進行國內青少年吸菸依賴的評估。

The smoking rate of Taiwanese adolescents is gradually increasing, which reached 10.7% and 13.99% among the Taiwanese senior high school students in 1994 and 2005 respectively. As teenagers begin smoking, most of them continue smoking in adulthood. Nicotine dependence is the main reason in the maintenance of smoking from adolescent into adulthood. The instruments for measuring cigarette dependence in adolescents are not available in Taiwan so that cigarette dependence of adolescent smokers could not be assessed. The aims of the study are to translate and to test two worldwide used questionnaires, Dimensions of Tobacco Dependence Scale (DTDS) and Hooked on Nicotine Checklist (HONC). The results can help us to understand whether these scales can be appropriately used to assess cigarette dependence of adolescent smokers in Taiwanese. This study is a descriptive and cross-sectional study using the purposive sampling. The student smokers were recruited from nine senior high schools and vocational high schools in the middle and southern Taiwan. The effective sample size is 293. The content validity index of the Chinese version of the DTDS and the HONC are 0.92 and 1, respectively. The important biomarkers (expired carbon monoxide, CO and saliva cotinine) and the Fagerstrom Test of Nicotine Dependence (FTND) are used to examine the criterion-related validity. The correlation coefficients of the DTDS and the HONC and expired CO are .13 (p <.05) and .09. The correlation coefficients of the DTDS and the HONC and saliva cotinine are .31(p <.01) and .23 (p <.01). The correlation coefficients of the DTDS and the HONC and FTND scale are .57 (p <.01) and .59 (p<.01). The internal structure of the DTDS was first examined using EFA with promax rotation. Two factors emerged from the factor analysis that accounted for 36.57% of the variance. One factor of the HONC was determined by factor analysis, accounting for 35% of the variance. The internal consistency is evaluated by reliability coefficient. The items of the DTDS are continuous variables. The Cronbach’s alpha of the DTDS is 0.95. The items of the HONC was dichotomous variables. The Kuder-Richardson coefficient (KR-20) is 0.84. The results demonstrated that the Chinese version of the DTDS and the HONC have good reliability and validity. Future research can use these scales to assess cigarette dependence of adolescent smokers in Taiwan.

第一章 緒論....................................................................................................1
第一節 研究背景與動機............................................................................1
第二節 研究目的........................................................................................3
第貳章 文獻查證............................................................................................4
第一節 青少年吸菸依賴的概念................................................................4
第二節 青少年吸菸依賴之測量工具......................................................10
第三節 吸菸依賴的生理指標..................................................................19
第叄章 研究方法..........................................................................................23
第一節 研究對象......................................................................................23
第二節 研究設計......................................................................................25
第三節 研究工具......................................................................................26
第四節 研究倫理......................................................................................29
第五節 資料收集......................................................................................31
第六節 資料分析方法..............................................................................32
第肆章 研究結果..........................................................................................37
第一節 研究對象之描述性統計..............................................................37
第二節 量表效度......................................................................................41
第三節 量表信度......................................................................................48
第伍章 討論..................................................................................................50
第一節 研究對象之人口學變項及量表得分之分佈特性....................50
第二節 與國外DTDS及HONC量表之效度比較..............................56
第三節 與國外DTDS及HONC量表之信度比較..............................62
第陸章 結論與建議......................................................................................64
第一節 結論............................................................................................64
第二節 限制與建議................................................................................65
參考文獻........................................................................................................66
表....................................................................................................................82
表一 研究對象人口學基本資料..................................................................82
表二 研究對象之吸菸經驗..........................................................................84
表三 研究對象之吸菸背景資料..................................................................85
表四 DTDS量表之同意比例.......................................................................86
表五 HONC量表之同意比例......................................................................88
表六 FTND量表之各題回答情形...............................................................89
表七 DTDS量表之專家建議修改後題目...................................................90
表八 DTDS量表之社會性項目分析...........................................................91
表九 DTDS量表之感官性項目分析...........................................................92
表十 DTDS量表之情感性項目分析...........................................................93
表十一 DTDS量表之生理性項目分析.......................................................94
表十二 DTDS量表之收斂效度與區別效度...............................................96
表十三 原始計分之DTDS量表2-5因子個數的因素負荷量......................98
表十四 修正後計分之DTDS量表2-5因子個數的因素負荷量................101
表十五 DTDS量表之因素分析................................................................104
表十六DTDS量表之各因素間相關.........................................................106
表十七 HONC量表之項目分析...............................................................107
表十八 HONC量表1-3因子個數的因素負荷量....................................108
表十九 HONC量表之因素分析...............................................................109
圖..................................................................................................................110
圖一 青少年吸菸依賴量表之發展與測試................................................110
圖二 DTDS量表之陡坡圖.........................................................................111
圖三 HONC量表之陡坡圖........................................................................112
附件..............................................................................................................113
附件一 FTND量表.....................................................................................113
附件二 基本資料........................................................................................114
附件三 DTDS量表.....................................................................................116
附件四 HONC量表....................................................................................118
附件五 吸菸經歷........................................................................................119
附件六 一氧化碳濃度測量儀的使用方式................................................120
附件七 唾液收集方法與步驟....................................................................121
附件八 優良臨床試驗規範訓練結業證書................................................122
附件九 同意臨床試驗證明書....................................................................123
附件十 家長及學生同意書........................................................................124
附件十一 DTDS量表原作者允用同意書.................................................127
附件十二 HONC量表原作者允用同意書................................................128
附件十三 英文量表翻譯成中文對等性之專家效度評分表....................129
附件十四 DTDS量表之專家評分結果.....................................................130
附件十五 HONC量表之專家評分結果....................................................132

參考文獻
中文部分
大美百科全書編輯部編譯(1990)∙大美百科全書∙台北：光復。
大英百科全書公司台灣分公司編輯部編譯(2004)∙大英簡明百科∙台北：遠流。
行政院衛生署（2006）∙台灣九十四年度高中職學生吸菸行為調查摘要報告∙2007年1月30日取自http://tobacco.bhp.doh.gov.tw:8080/sboss/point.php#
行政院衛生署（1996）∙中華民國公共衛生概況∙台北市：衛生署。
行政院衛生署國民健康局（2007）∙臺灣菸害防制年報∙台北市：衛生署。
邱浩政（2007）∙量化研究與統計分析 ∙台北：五南圖書出版股份有限公司。
吳齊殷譯（1999）∙量表發展：理論與應用∙台北市：弘智文化事業有限公司。
吳淑芳（2006）∙國外量表之兩階段翻譯及信、效度測試∙護理雜誌，53(1)，65-70。
陳富莉、李蘭（2004）∙青少年菸品消費認同與吸菸行為之研究-以台北縣某兩所高職學生為例∙台灣公共衛生雜誌，23(2)，59-70。
陳嘉容、黃芷苓（2007）∙青少年吸菸依賴之概念分析 ∙未發表文章，台南：長榮大學護理研究所。
張玉瓏（2006）∙生物技術 ∙台北：新文京開發。
劉金蓉、封安珍、陳雅貞、劉惠珠(2003) ∙吸菸與吐氣一氧化碳∙呼吸治療， 2(1)，15-20。
蔡崇煌、陳宇嘉、黃素雲、許維中、劉永昌、林高德（2005）∙尼古丁依賴程度與DSM-IV泛焦慮症症狀之相關探討：以某技術學院抽菸新生為例菸∙臺灣家庭醫學雜誌，15(2)，97-107。
薛春生、林在高(1995)∙圖解中央英漢醫學辭海∙台北：中央。
英文部份
Agius, R. M., Blenkin, H., Deary, I. J., Zealley, H. E., & Wood, R. A. (1996). Survey of perceived stress and work demands of consultant doctors. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53(4), 217-224.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders :DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Amos, A., Wiltshire, S., Haw, S., & McNeill, A. (2006). Ambivalence and uncertainty: Experiences of and attitudes towards addiction and smoking cessation in the mid-to-late teens. Health Education Research, 21(2), 181-191.
Ariza-Cardenal, C., & Nebot-Adell, M. (2002). Factors associated with smoking progression among Spanish adolescents. Health Education Research, 17(6), 750-760.
Becona, E., & Vazquez, F. L. (1998). Self-reported smoking and measurement of expired air carbon monoxide in a clinical treatment. Psychological Reports, 83(1), 316-318.
Buller, D. B., Borland, R., Woodall, W. G., Hall, J. R., Burris-Woodall, P., & Voeks, J. H. (2003). Understanding factors that influence smoking uptake. Tobacco Control, 12 Suppl (4), 16-25.
Chen, K., Sheth, A. J., Elliott, D. K., & Yeager, A. (2004). Prevalence and correlates of past-year substance use, abuse, and dependence in a suburban community sample of high-school students. Addictive Behaviors, 29(2), 413-423.
Chen, X., Zheng, H., Steve, S., Gong, J., Stacy, A., Xia, J., et al. (2002). Use of the fagerstrom tolerance questionnaire for measuring nicotine dependence among adolescent smokers in China: A pilot test. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(3), 260-263.
Clark, D. B., Wood, D. S., Martin, C. S., Cornelius, J. R., Lynch, K. G., & Shiffman, S. (2005). Multidimensional assessment of nicotine dependence in adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77(3), 235-242.
Cohen, L. M., Myers, M. G., & Kelly, J. F. (2002). Assessment of nicotine dependence among substance abusing adolescent smokers: A comparison of the DSM-IV criteria and the modified Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 24(4), 225-233.
Colby, S. M., Tiffany, S. T., Shiffman, S., & Niaura, R. S. (2000). Measuring nicotine dependence among youth : A review of available approaches and instruments. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 59 (1), S23-39.
Collins, C. C., & Moolchan, E. T. (2006). Shorter time to first cigarette of the day in menthol adolescent cigarette smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 31(8), 1460-1464.
Corrigall, W. A., Zack, M., Eissenberg, T., Belsito, L., & Scher, R. (2001). Acute subjective and physiological responses to smoking in adolescents. Addiction, 96(10), 1409-1417.
Costello, D., Dierker, L., Sledjeski, E., Flaherty, B., Flay, B., & Shiffman, S. (2007). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale in an American college sample of light smokers. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 9(8), 811-819.
DeVellis., R. F. (1991). Scale development : Theory and applications. Newbury Park :Sage.
DiFranza, J. R. (2002). Implications of the autonomy theory of nicotine dependence. Medscape General Medicine, 4(3), 8-12.
DiFranza, J. R., Rigotti, N. A., McNeill, A. D., Ockene, J. K., Savageau, J. A., St Cyr, D., et al. (2000). Initial symptoms of nicotine dependence in adolescents. Tobacco Control, 9(3), 313-319.
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., Ockene, J. K., Rigotti, N. A., McNeill, A. D., et al. (2002a). Measuring the loss of autonomy over nicotine use in adolescents: The DANDY (Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youths) Study. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156(4), 397-403.
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., Ockene, J. K., Rigotti, N. A., McNeill, A. D., et al. (2004a). Recollections and repercussions of the first inhaled cigarette. Addictive Behaviors, 29(2), 261-272.
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Rigotti, N. A., Fletcher, K., Ockene, J. K., McNeill, A. D., et al. (2002b). Development of symptoms of tobacco dependence in youths: 30 month follow up data from the DANDY study. Tobacco Control, 11(3), 228-235.
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Rigotti, N. A., Ockene, J. K., McNeill, A. D., Coleman, M., et al. (2004b). Trait anxiety and nicotine dependence in adolescents: A report from the DANDY study. Addictive Behaviors, 29(5), 911-919.
Dijkstra, A., & Tromp, D. (2002). Is the FTND a measure of physical as well as psychological tobacco dependence? Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 23(4), 367-374.
Dolcini, M. M., Adler, N. E., Lee, P., & Bauman, K. E. (2003). An assessment of the validity of adolescent self-reported smoking using three biological indicators. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 5(4), 473-483.
Dudas, R. B., Hans, K., & Barabas, K. (2005). Anxiety, depression and smoking in schoolchildren -- implications for smoking prevention. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 125(2), 87-92.
Edwards, G. (1986). The alcohol dependence syndrome: A concept as stimulus to enquiry. British Journal of Addiction, 81(2), 171-183.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. New York :W. W. Norton.
Etter, J. F., Duc, T. V., & Perneger, T. V. (1999). Validity of the Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence and of the Heaviness of Smoking Index among relatively light smokers. Addiction, 94(2), 269-281.
Fagerstrom, K. O. (1978). Measuring degree of physical dependence to tobacco smoking with reference to individualization of treatment. Addictive Behaviors, 3(3), 235-241.
Gariti, P., Rosenthal, D. I., Lindell, K., Hansen-Flaschen, J., Shrager, J., Lipkin, C., et al. (2002). Validating a dipstick method for detecting recent smoking. Cancer epidemiology biomarkers & prevention, 11(10), 1123-1125.
Gay, L. R. (1992). Educational research :Competencies for analysis and application. New York: Merrill.
Glass, G. V., & Hopkins, K. D. (1996). Statistical methods in education and psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Glautier, S. (2004). Measures and models of nicotine dependence: Positive reinforcement. Addiction, 99 (1), 30-50.
Gold, D. R., Wang, X., Wypij, D., Speizer, F. E., Ware, J. H., & Dockery, D. W. (1996). Effects of cigarette smoking on lung function in adolescent boys and girls. New England Journal of Medicine, 335(13), 931-937.
Haufroid, V., & Lison, D. (1998). Urinary cotinine as a tobacco-smoke exposure index: A minireview. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental health, 71(3), 162-168.
Heatherton, T. F., Kozlowski, L. T., Frecker, R. C., & Fagerstrom, K. O. (1991). The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire. British Journal of Addiction, 86(9), 1119-1127.
Henson, R. K. (2001). Understanding internal consistency reiability estimates : A conceptual primer on coefficient alpha. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34(3), 177-189.
Hersey, J. C., Ng, S. W., Nonnemaker, J. M., Mowery, P., Thomas, K. Y., Vilsaint, M. C., et al. (2006). Are menthol cigarettes a starter product for youth? Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 8(3), 403-413.
Horn, K., Fernandes, A., Dino, G., Massey, C. J., & Kalsekar, I. (2003). Adolescent nicotine dependence and smoking cessation outcomes. Addictive Behaviors, 28(4), 769-776.
Huang, C. L., Lin, H. H., & Wang, H. H. (2006). The psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence. Addictive Behaviors, 31(12), 2324-2327.
Hylkema, M. N., Sterk, P. J., de Boer, W. I., & Postma, D. S. (2007). Tobacco use in relation to COPD and asthma. European Respiratory Journal, 29(3), 438-445.
James, H., Tizabi, Y., & Taylor, R. (1998). Rapid method for the simultaneous measurement of nicotine and cotinine in urine and serum by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of chromatography, 708, 87-93.
Javaid, M. K., & Cooper, C. (2002). Prenatal and childhood influences on osteoporosis. Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 16(2), 349-367.
Johnson, J. L., Bottorff, J. L., Moffat, B., Ratner, P. A., Shoveller, J. A., & Lovato, C. Y. (2003). Tobacco dependence: Adolescents'' perspectives on the need to smoke. Social Science and Medicine, 56(7), 1481-1492.
Johnson, J. L., Ratner, P. A., Tucker, R. S., Bottorff, J. L., Zumbo, B., Prkachin, K. M., et al. (2005). Development of a multidimensional measure of tobacco dependence in adolescence. Addictive Behaviors, 30(3), 501-515.
Juon, H.-S., Ensminger, M.-E., & Sydnor, K.-D. (2002). A longitudinal study of developmental trajectories to young adult cigarette smoking. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 66(3), 303-314.
Kandel, D., Schaffran, C., Griesler, P., Samuolis, J., Davies, M., & Galanti, R. (2005). On the measurement of nicotine dependence in adolescence: Comparisons of the mFTQ and a DSM-IV-based scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 30(4), 319-332.
Karp, I., O''Loughlin, J., Hanley, J., Tyndale, R. F., & Paradis, G. (2006). Risk factors for tobacco dependence in adolescent smokers. Tobacco Control, 15(3), 199-204.
Karp, I., O''Loughlin, J., Paradis, G., Hanley, J., & Difranza, J. (2005). Smoking trajectories of adolescent novice smokers in a longitudinal study of tobacco use. Annals of Epidemiology, 15(6), 445-452.
Kentala, J., Utriainen, P., Pahkala, K., & Mattila, K. (2004). Verification of adolescent self-reported smoking. Addictive Behaviors, 29(2), 405-411.
Lando, H. A., McGovern, P. G., Kelder, S. H., Jeffery, R. W., & Forster, J. L. (1991). Use of carbon monoxide breath validation in assessing exposure to cigarette smoke in a worksite population. Health Psychology, 10(4), 296-301.
Le Houezec, J. (2003). Role of nicotine pharmacokinetics in nicotine addiction and nicotine replacement therapy: A review. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 7(9), 811-819.
Maville, J. A., & Huerta, C. G. (2002). Health promotion in nursing. NY: Delmar.
Mikulich, S. K., Hall, S. K., Whitmore, E. A., & Crowley, T. J. (2001). Concordance between DSM-III-R and DSM-IV diagnoses of substance use disorders in adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 61(3), 237-248.
Nonnemaker, J., & Homsi, G. (2007). Measurement properties of the Fagerstrom Test for nicotine dependence adapted for use in an adolescent sample. Addictive Behaviors, 32(1), 181-186.
Nonnemaker, J., Mowery, P., Hersey, J., Nimsch, C., Farrelly, M., Messeri, P., et al. (2004). Measurement properties of a nicotine dependence scale for adolescents. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6(2), 295-301.
O''Byrne, K. K., Haddock, C. K., & Poston, W. S. C. (2002). Parenting style and adolescent smoking. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30(6), 418-425.
O''Loughlin, J., DiFranza, J., Tarasuk, J., Meshefedjian, G., McMillan-Davey, E., Paradis, G., et al. (2002a). Assessment of nicotine dependence symptoms in adolescents: A comparison of five indicators. Tobacco Control, 11(4), 354-360.
O''Loughlin, J., DiFranza, J., Tyndale, R. F., Meshefedjian, G., McMillan-Davey, E., Clarke, P. B., et al. (2003). Nicotine-dependence symptoms are associated with smoking frequency in adolescents. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25(3), 219-225.
O''Loughlin, J., Kishchuk, N., DiFranza, J., Tremblay, M., & Paradis, G. (2002b). The hardest thing is the habit: A qualitative investigation of adolescent smokers'' experience of nicotine dependence. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 4(2), 201-209.
O''Loughlin, J., Tarasuk, J., Difranza, J., & Paradis, G. (2002c). Reliability of selected measures of nicotine dependence among adolescents. Annals of Epidemiology, 12(5), 353-361.
Piontek, D., Buehler, A., Rudolph, U., Metz, K., Kroeger, C., Gradl, S., et al. (2007). Social contexts in adolescent smoking: Does school policy matter? Health education research, 10(17), 1-10.
Piper, M. E., Piasecki, T. M., Federman, E. B., Bolt, D. M., Smith, S. S., Fiore, M. C., et al. (2004). A multiple motives approach to tobacco dependence: The Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives (WISDM-68). Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 72(2), 139-154.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). The content validity index: Are you sure you know what''s being reported? Critique and recommendations. Research in Nursing and Health, 29(5), 489-497.
Prokhorov, A. V., De Moor, C., Pallonen, U. E., Hudmon, K. S., Koehly, L., & Hu, S. (2000). Validation of the modified Fagerstrom tolerance questionnaire with salivary cotinine among adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 25(3), 429-433.
Prokhorov, A. V., Hudmon, K. S., de Moor, C. A., Kelder, S. H., Conroy, J. L., & Ordway, N. (2001). Nicotine dependence, withdrawal symptoms, and adolescents'' readiness to quit smoking. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 3(2), 151-155.
Prokhorov, A. V., Pallonen, U. E., Fava, J. L., Ding, L., & Niaura, R. (1996). Measuring nicotine dependence among high-risk adolescent smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 21(1), 117-127.
Richardson, C. G., Johnson, J. L., Ratner, P. A., Zumbo, B. D., Bottorff, J. L., Shoveller, J. A., et al. (2007). Validation of the Dimensions of Tobacco Dependence Scale for adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 32(7), 1498-1504.
Sargent, J. D., & DiFranza, J. R. (2003). Tobacco control for clinicians who treat adolescents. A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 53(2), 102-123.
Secker-Walker, R. H., Vacek, P. M., Flynn, B. S., & Mead, P. B. (1997). Exhaled carbon monoxide and urinary cotinine as measures of smoking in pregnancy. Addictive Behaviors, 22(5), 671-684.
Shadel, W. G., Shiffman, S., Niaura, R., Nichter, M., & Abrams, D. B. (2000). Current models of nicotine dependence: What is known and what is needed to advance understanding of tobacco etiology among youth. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 59(1), S9-22.
Shiffman, S., Waters, A., & Hickcox, M. (2004). The nicotine dependence syndrome scale: A multidimensional measure of nicotine dependence. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6(2), 327-348.
Siqueira, L. M., Rolnitzky, L. M., & Rickert, V. I. (2001). Smoking cessation in adolescents: The role of nicotine dependence, stress, and coping methods. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 155(4), 489-495.
Soteriades, E. S., DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., & Nicolaou, M. (2003). Symptoms of nicotine dependence and other predictors of student smoking at school: Implications for school smoking policy. Journal of School Health, 73(4), 154-158.
Stevens, K. R., & Munoz, L. R. (2004). Cigarette smoking: Evidence to guide measurement. Research in Nursing and Health, 27(4), 281-292.
Stewart, R. D. (1975). The effect of carbon monoxide on humans. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 15, 409-423.
Strong, D. R., Kahler, C. W., Ramsey, S. E., Abrantes, A., & Brown, R. A. (2004). Nicotine withdrawal among adolescents with acute psychopathology: An item response analysis. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6(3), 547-557.
Tinsley, H. E. A., & Tinsley, D. J. (1987). Uses of factor analysis in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34(4), 414-424.
Vastola, B. J., Douglas, L. A., Varlinskaya, E. I., & Spear, L. P. (2002). Nicotine-induced conditioned place preference in adolescent and adult rats. Physiology and Behavior, 77(1), 107-114.
Velicer, W. F., Prochaska, J. O., Rossi, J. S., & Snow, M. G. (1992). Assessing outcome in smoking cessation studies. Psychological Bulletin, 111(1), 23-41.
Wellman, R. J., DiFranza, J. R., Pbert, L., Fletcher, K. E., Flint, A., Young, M. H., et al. (2006). A comparison of the psychometric properties of the hooked on nicotine checklist and the modified Fagerstrom tolerance questionnaire. Addictive Behaviors, 31(3), 486-495.
Wellman, R. J., DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., & Dussault, G. F. (2004). Short term patterns of early smoking acquisition. Tobacco Control, 13(3), 251-257.
Wheeler, K. C., Fletcher, K. E., Wellman, R. J., & Difranza, J. R. (2004). Screening adolescents for nicotine dependence: The Hooked On Nicotine Checklist. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(3), 225-230.
Wills, T. A., & Cleary, S. D. (1997). The validity of self-reports of smoking: Analyses by race/ethnicity in a school sample of urban adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 87(1), 56-61.
Wilmouth, C. E., & Spear, L. P. (2004). Adolescent and adult rats'' aversion to flavors previously paired with nicotine. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 462-464.
World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorder : Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., Stallings, M. C., Rhee, S. H., Crowley, T. J., & Hewitt, J. K. (2002). Substance use, abuse and dependence in adolescence: Prevalence, symptom profiles and correlates. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68(3), 309-322 .
Zack, M., Belsito, L., Scher, R., Eissenberg, T., & Corrigall, W. A. (2001). Effects of abstinence and smoking on information processing in adolescent smokers. Psychopharmacology, 153(2), 249-257.