臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

語意流暢度測驗（SVF）由於指導語簡單易懂、施測快速、不需受測者具備讀寫能力，測驗內容貼近日常熟悉事物，且對腦功能異常高度敏感，因此為廣泛使用於執行功能評估的工具之一。台灣臨床上最常使用包括水果、魚類以及蔬菜等三項內容的語意流暢度測驗，然而至今尚未系統性建立該測驗常模及心理計量資料。本研究目的在增訂3項非生物類別語意流暢度測驗、評估SVF於台灣北部地區中老年人使用上之心理計量特性、探討人口學變項與該測驗表現之關係，進一步建立台灣北部中老年人SVF的常模資料。本研究一共收集了台灣北部地區220名45歲至85歲、教育程度0年至18年的健康中老年人於SVF的常模資料，同時收集尼爾森修訂版卡片分類測驗、彩色路徑描繪測驗、定速聽覺系列加法測驗、詞彙分測驗等資料來檢驗SVF之效度。其中30名受測者於四個月後進行再測，以檢驗SVF之再測信度。研究結果顯示：1.項目分析方面，個別SVF彼此具有高項目同質與高鑑別度；2.人口學變項中，整體而言，年齡與教育程度為SVF最重要的預測變項。年齡與SVF呈現負相關；教育程度與SVF呈現正相關；性別只與蔬菜類別有顯著相關。然而就合併類別SVF或個別SVF而言，人口學變項對不同SVF的影響不同。隨著個別語意類別之不同，不識字組、國小教育程度組以及國中教育程度組組間差異也有所不同; 3.信效度方面，合併類別SVF具有高內部一致性及.85-.90的再測信度；合併類別SVF與個別SVF皆具有良好效度 ; 4.常模建立方面，本研究以迴歸分析的方式建立校正公式，排除人口學變項對測驗表現的影響，並分別建立合併6項全類別SVF、合併3項生物向度SVF、合併3項非生物向度SVF以及個別SVF之百分等級對照表以供參照。綜合上述研究結果，說明SVF於45歲至85歲的北部地區健康中老年人使用上有良好的心理計量特性，以及臨床應用上之適切性，而本研究提供的常模資料具有代表性與適切性。未來擬以臨床病人為對象，配合神經影像學資料加以佐證，探討SVF在臨床使用上敏感度與特異性之議題，並訂定適當切截點。

Semantic Association of Verbal Fluency task (SVF) is commonly used in neuropsychological assessment since it is easy to administer, sensitive to brain damage and cognitive deterioration. Besides, SVF is a relatively simple test used to assess frontal lobe function. SVF also has been applied in the investigation of illiterate and other low-level education groups as it does not require reading or writing skills. The SVF with a composite of fruit, fish and vegetable categories is the most popular criterion in Taiwanese clinical practice. However, related studies on the SVF and the normative data for the tests are scarce in Taiwan. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to expand the SVF test including the nonliving domain, to evaluate its psychometric properties, and to collect the normative data in healthy older adults in North Taiwan, as well as to examine the relationship between the test performance and demographic variables. The SVF were administered to 220 healthy individuals aged 45 to 85 years, with education level varied from 0 to 18 years. The Nelson’s Modified Card Sorting Test, the Color Trail Test, the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, and the Vocabulary subtest from the WAIS-Ⅲ (Chinese version) were also administered to examine the validity of the SVF. Thirty of these 220 participants were retested 4 months later to examine the reliability of the SVF. The results revealed that both the item homogeneity and item discrimination were high. The SVF performances were negatively correlated with age, but positively correlated with education. The advantage performance of female subjects on the vegetable fluency task was also noted. Overall, age and education were the most important predictors of the SVF performances. However, the influence of demographic variables on SVF performances varied as different domains and individual category were concerned, justifying the necessity of establishing the norms for composite scores of SVF and each single SVF score individually. Stability coefficients of the composite scores of SVF ranged from .85 to .90, and the correlations between the SVF and the criterion validity tests were significant. Regression coefficients derived from demographic variables were used to adjust raw scores, and percentile rank norms for these adjusted scores were established. In conclusion, the SVF showed good test-retest reliability and validity, and the local normative data are applicable for the healthy individuals aged from 45 to 85 years. The composite scores of living domain SVF are particularly suitable for evaluating illiterates or people with low education level. For the effective use of the SVF in clinical settings, further studies of specific clinical populations are required.

導論…………………………………………………………………………………1
研究目的與問題……………………………………………………………………15
研究方法……………………………………………………………………………17
研究對象…………………………………………………………………17
測量工具…………………………………………………………………21
施測程序…………………………………………………………………25
統計方法…………………………………………………………………25
研究結果……………………………………………………………………………27
項目分析…………………………………………………………………27
研究對象基本資料與測驗表現…………………………………………31
人口學變項與測驗表現的關係…………………………………………36
信度與效度………………………………………………………………42
常模建立…………………………………………………………………47
討論…………………………………………………………………………………55
個別SVF、組合SVF於項目同質及鑑別度之心理計量特性………… 55
人口學變項對個別SVF、組合SVF之影響…………………………… 56
編訂之SVF的心理計量特性……………………………………………63
本研究使用之SVF於台灣北部中老年人之適用性……………………69
本研究建立之SVF常模之適用性………………………………………70
結論…………………………………………………………………………………75
研究貢獻…………………………………………………………………76
研究限制…………………………………………………………………76
未來研究建議……………………………………………………………77
參考文獻……………………………………………………………………………79
附錄…………………………………………………………………………………95
附錄一 基本問卷及健康狀況調查表………………………………… 95
附錄二 參與研究同意書……………………………………………… 96

內政部戶政司（2008）：戶籍人口歷年統計表。台北市：內政部。
內政部統計處（2009）：內政部統計通報。台北市：內政部。
王珊瑜（2007）。台北市小型安養護機構老人認知功能之探討：簡易智能狀態量表（MMSE）之運用。國立台灣大學社會科學院社會工作學研究所碩士論文。
陳榮華、陳心怡（2002）。「魏氏成人智力量表第三版 （中文版）指導手冊」。台北：中國行為科學社。
鍾素英、花茂棽、薛惠琪、張鈺姗、邱嘉凡、陳明招（2007）。正常不識字老人與早期阿茲海默型失智症老人在語意流暢度測驗表現的比較研究。「中華心理學刊」，49，73-86。
Acevedo, A., Loewenstein, D. A., Barker, W. W., Harwood, D. G., Luis, C., Bravo, M. et al. (2000). Category fluency test: Normative data for English-and Spanish-speaking elderly. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 760-769.
Anastasi, A. & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological Testing (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall.
Ardila, A. (1995). Directions of research in cross-cultural neuropsychology. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 17(1), 143-150.
Baddeley, A. (1990). Human memory: Theory and practice. London: Erlbaum.
Baldo, J. V., Schwartz, S., Wilkins, D., & Dronkers, N. F. (2006). Role of frontal versus temporal cortex in verbal fluency as revealed by voxel-based lesion symptom mapping. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12(6), 896-900.
Baldo, J. V., & Shimamura, A. P. (1998). Letter and category fluency in patients with frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychology, 12, 259-267.
Bartzokis, G., Beckson, M., Lu, P. H., Nuechterlein, K. H., Edwards, N., & Mintz, J. (2001). Age related changes in frontal and temporal lobe volumes in men: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of general psychiatry, 58, 461-465.
Benito-Cuadrado M. M., Esteba-Castillo S., Bohm P., Cejudo-Bolivar J., ＆Pena-Casanova J. (2002). Semantic verbal fluency of animals: a normative and predictive study in a Spanish population. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24 (8), 1117-1122.
Benton, A. L., & Hamsher, K. S. (1978). Multilingual Aphasia Examination (Rev. ed.). Iowa City: Department of Neurology, University of Iowa Hospitals.
Bird, C. M., Papadopoulou, K., Ricciardelli, P., Rossor, M. N., ＆ Cipolotti, L. (2004). Monitoring cognitive changes: Psychometric properties of six cognitive tests. British journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 197-210.

Bolla, K.I., Gray, S., Resnick, S.M., Galante, R., ＆ Kawas, C. (1998). Category and letter fluency in highly educated older adults. The Clinical Neuropsychologist; 12, 330–338.
Bolla, K.I., Lindgren, K.N., Bonaccorsy, C., ＆ Bleecker M.L. (1990). Predictors of verbal fluency (FAS) in the healthy elderly. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 623–628.
Boone, K. B., Ponton, M. O., Gorsuch, R. L., Gonzales, J. J., & Miller, B. L. (1998). Factor Analysis of four measures of prefrontal lobe functioning. Archives of clinical neuropsychology, 13(7), 585-595.
Brucki, S. M., & Rocha, M. S. (2004). Category fluency test: effects of age, gender and education on total scores, clustering and switching in Brazilian Portuguese-speaking subjects. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 37(12), 1771-1777.
Bryan, J., & Luszcz, M. A. (2000). Measurement of executive function: Considerations for detecting adult age differences. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 22(1), 40-55.
Cameron, R. M., Wambaugh, J. L., & Mauszycki, S. (2008). Effects of age, gender, and education on semantic fluency for living and artifact categories. Aphasiology, 22(7 & 8), 790-801.
Capitani, E . & Laiacona, M. (1997). Composite neuropsychological batteries and demographic correction: Standardization based on equivalent scores, with a review of Published Data. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,19, 795-809.
Capitani, E., Laiacona, M., & Barbarotto, R. (1999). Gender affects word retrieval of certain categories in semantic fluency tasks. Cortex, 35(2), 273-278.
Caramelli, P., Carthery-Goulart, M. T., Porto, C. S., Charchat-Fichman, H., & Nitrini, R.(2007). Category fluency as a screening test for Alzheimer Disease in illiterate and literate patients. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 21(1), 65-67.
Cardebat, D., Démonet, J. F., Viallard, G., Faure, S., Puel, M., & Celsis, P. (1996).
Brain Functional Profiles in Formal and Semantic Fluency Tasks: A SPECT Study
in Normals. Brain and Language, 52(2), 305-313.
Chan, A. S., & Poon, M. W. (1999). Performance of 7- to 95-year-old individuals in a
Chinese version of the category fluency test. Journal of the International
Neuropsychological Society, 5, 525–533.
Chan, R. C. K., Wong, M., Chen, E. Y. H., & Lam, L. C. W. (2004). Semantic categorisation and verbal fluency performance in a comm.unity population in Hong Kong: a prelim report. The Hong Kong Journal of Psychiatry, 13(4), 14-20.
Chang, C. C., Lee, Y. C., Chang, W. N., Chen, S. S., Lui, C. C., Chang, H. W., Lui, W. L., & Wang, Y. L. (2009). Damage of White Matter Tract Correlated with Neuropsychological Deficits in Carbon Monoxide Intoxication after Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy. Journal of Neurotrauma, 26, 1263–1270.
Chen, E. Y. H., Lam, L. C. W., Chen, R. Y. L., Nguyen, D. G. H., & Chan, C. K. Y. (1996). Prefrontal neuropsychological impairment and illness duration in schizophrenia: A study of 204 patients in Hong Kong. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 93, 144-150.
Chiu, H. F., Chan, C. K., Lam, L. C., Ng, K. O., Li, S. W., Wong, M. et al. (1997). The Modified Fuld Verbal Fluency Test: A Validation Study in Hong Kong. The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52(5), 247-250.
Cooper, D. B., Lacritz, L. H., Weiner, M. F., Rosenberg, R. N., & Cullum, C. M. (2004). Category Fluency in Mild Cognitive Impairment: Reduced Effect of Practice in Test-Retest Conditions. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders,18(3), 120-122.
Crossley, M., D’Arcy, C., & Rawson, N. S. (1997). Letter and category fluency in community-dwelling Canadian seniors: A comparison of normal participants to those with dementia of the Alzheimer of vascular type. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19, 52– 62.
Crowe, S. F. (1998). Decrease in Performance on the Verbal Fluency Test as a Function of Time: Evaluation in a Young Healthy Sample. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(3), 391-401.
D’ Elia, L. F., Satz, P., Uchiyama, C. L., & White, T. (1996). Color Trails test: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Demakis, G. J. (2004). Frontal lobe damage and tests of executive processing: a meta-analysis of the category test, Stroop Test, and Trail-Making Test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 441-450.
Di Sclafani, V., Mackay, R. D., Meyerhoff, D. J., Norman, D., Weiner, M. W., & Fein, G. (1997). Brain atrophy in HIV infection is more strongly associated with CDC clinical stage than with cognitive impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3(3), 276-287.
Diego, F. D., ＆ Michael, I. P. (2001). Brain imaging of attention networks in normal and pathological states. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 23(1), 74-93.
Egeland, J., Landro, N. I., Tjemsland, E., ＆ Walbakken, K. (2006). Norwegian norms and factor-structure of phonemic and semantic word list generation. The Clinical Neuropshologist, 20, 716-728.
Elias, M. F., Elias, P. K., D’ Agostino, R. B., Silberschatz, H., ＆ Wolf, P. A. (1997). Role of age, education and gender on cognitive performance in the Framingham Heart Study: Community-based norms. Experimental Aging Research, 23, 201-235.
Fama, R., Sullivan, E. V.; Shear, P. K.; Cahn-Weiner, D. A.; Marsh, L.; Lim, K. O., et al. (2000). Structural brain correlates of verbal and nonverbal fluency measures in Alzheimer''s disease. Neuropsychology,14(1), 29-41.
Fernaeus, S. E., & Almkvist, O. (1998). Word Production: Dissociation of Two Retrieval Modes of Semantic Memory Across Time. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(2), 137-143.
Fernandez-Duque, D., & Posner, M. I. (2001). Brain imaging of attentional networks in normal and pathological states. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 23(1), 477-486.
Garrard, P., Patterson, K., Watson, P. C., & Hodges, J. (1998). Category specific semantic loss in dementia of Alzheimer’s type: Functional–anatomical correlations from cross-sectional analyses. Brain, 121, 633– 646.
Geffen, G. M., Bate, A., Wright, M., Rozenbilds, U., & Geffen, L. (1993). A comparison of cognitive impairments in dementia of Alzheimer type and depression in the elderly. Dementia, 4, 294–300.
Gladsjo, J. A., Schuman, C. C., Evans, J. D., Peavy, G. M., Miller, S. M., & Heaton, R. K. (1999). Norms for letter and category fluency: Demographic corrections for age, education, and ethnicity, Assessment, 6, 147–178.
Goodglass, H., & Kaplan E.(1983). The Assessment of Aphasia and Related Disorders (2nd ed). Philadelphia, Pa: Lea & Febiger.
Gourovitch, M. L., Goldberg, T. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (1996). Verbal Fluency Deficits in Patients With Schizophrenia: Semantic Fluency is Differentially Impaired as Compared With Phonologic Fluency. Neuropsychology, 10(4), 573-577.
Gourovitch, M, L., Kirkby, B. S., Goldberg, T. E., Weinberger, D. R., Gold, J.M., Esposito, G. et al. (2000). A comparison of rCBF patterns during letter and semantic fluency. Neuropsychology, 14, 353–360.
Gregory, R. J. (2000). Psychological Testing: history, principles, and applications (3rd ed). Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Harrison, J. E., Buxton, P., Husain, M., & Wise, R. (2000). Short test of semantic and phonological fluency: Normal performance, validity and test-retest reliability. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, 181-191.
Hartman, M., Bolton, E.＆ Fehnel, S. (2001). Accounting for age differences on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Decreased working memory, not inflexibility. Psychology and Aging, 16(3), 385-399.
Harvey, P.D., Lombardi, J., Leibman, M., Parrella, M., White, L., Powchik, P., et al. (1997). Verbal fluency deficits in geriatric and nongeriatric chronic schizophrenic patients. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 9, 584–590.
Henry, J. D. & Crawford, J. R. (2004a). A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency performance following focal cortical lesions. Neuropsychology, 18, 284-295.
Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2004b). A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency performance in patients with traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 18, 621-628.
Henry, J. D. & Phillips, L. H. (2006). Covariates of Production and
Perseveration on Tests of Phonemic, Semantic and Alternating Fluency in
Normal Aging. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 13, 529–551.
Hermann, B. P., Seidenberg, M., Haltiner, A., & Wyler, A. R. (1992). Adequacy of language function and verbal memory performance in unilateral temporal lobe epilepsy. Cortex, 28, 423–433.
Hodges, J. R., Salmon, D. P., & Butters, N. (1992). Semantic memory impairment in Alzheimer’s disease: Failure of access or degraded knowledge? Neuropsychologia, 30, 301–314.
Hua, M. S., Chang, S. H., & Chen, S. T. (1997). Factor structure and age effects with an aphasia test battery in normal Taiwanese adults. Neuropsychology, 11(1), 156-162.
Huff, J. F., Corkin, S., & Growdon, J. H. (1986). Semantic impairment and anomia in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain and Language, 28, 235–249.
Kave, G.(2005). Phonemic fluency, semantic fluency, and difference scores: Normative data for adult Hebrew speakers. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 27, 690-699.
Kempler, D., Teng, E. L., Dick, M., Taussig, I. M., ＆ Davis, D. S. (1998). The effects of age, education, and ethnicity on verbal fluency. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4, 531–538.
Knight, R. G., McMahon, J., Green, T. J., ＆ Skeaff, C. M. (2006). Regression equations for predicting scores of persons over 65 on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, the mini-mental state examination, the trail making test and semantic fluency measures. The British Psychological Society, 45, 393-402.
Kramer, J. H., Jurik, J., Sha, S. J., Rankin, K. P., Rosen, H. J., Johnson, J. K. et al. (2003). Distinctive neuropsychologyical patterns in frontotemporal dementia, semantic dementia, and Alzheimer Disease. Cognitive Behavioral Neuropsychology, 16, 211-218.
Kuzis, G., Sabe, L., Tiberti, C., Leiguarda, R., & Starkstein, S. E. (1997). Cognitive functions in major depression and Parkinson disease. Archives of Neurology, 54, 982–986.
Lam, L. C. W., Ho, P., Lui, V. W. C., & Tam, C. W. C. (2006). Reduced semantic fluency as an additional screening tool for subjects with questionable dementia. Dementia and geriatric cognitive disorders, 22, 159-164.
Laws, K. R. (2000). Category-specific naming errors in normal subjects: the influence of evolution and experience. Brain and Language, 75 , 123–133.
Lamar, M, Zonderman, A. B.; Resnick, S. (2002). Contribution of specific cognitive processes to executive functioning in an aging population. Neuropsychology, 16 (2), 156-162.
Lee, T. M. C., Yuen, K. S. L. & Chan, C. C. H. (2002). Normative Data for Neuropsychological Measures of Fluency, Attention, and Memory Measures for Hong Kong Chinese. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(5), 615-632.
Levin, B. E., Berger, J. R., Didona, T., & Duncan, R. (1992). Cognitive function in asymptomatic HIV-1 infection: The effects of age, education, ethnicity, and depression. Neuropsychology, 6, 303-313.
Levin, H. S., Eisenberg, H. M., Gary, H. E., Marmarou, A., Foulkes, M. A., Jane, J. A., et al. (1991). Intracranial hypertension in relation to memory functioning during the first year after severe head injury. Neurosurgery, 28, 196-200.
Levin, H. S., Song, J., Ewing-Cobb, L., Chapman, S. B., & Mendel-sohn, D. (2001). Word fluency in relation to severity of closed head injuiry, associated frontal brain lesions, and age at injury in children. Neuropsychologia, 39, 122-131.
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lines, C. R., McCarroll, K. A., Lipton, R. B., & Block, G. A. (2002). Telephone screening for amnesty mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 60, 261-266.
Mack, W. J., Teng, E., Zheng, L., Paz, S., Chui, H, & Varma, R. (2005). Category Fluency in a Latino Sample: Associations with Age, Education, Gender, and Language. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 27(5), 591-598.
Manly, J. J., Jacobs, D. M., Sano, M., Bell, K., Merchant, C. A., Small, S. A. et al. (1999). Effect of literacy on neuropsychological test performance in nondemented, education-matched elders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5(3), 191–202.
March, E. G., & Pattison, P. (2006). Semantic Verbal Fluency in Alzheimer’s Disease: Approaches beyond the traditional scoring system. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology ,28, 549-566.
Marra, C., Ferraccioli, M., ＆ Gainotti, G. (2007). Gender-related dissociations of Categorical fluency in normal subjects and in subjects with Alzheimer’s Disease. Neuropsychology, 21(2), 207-211.
Martin, R. C., Loring, D. W., Meador, K. J., & Lee, G. P. (1990). The effects of lateralized temporal lobe dysfunction on formal and semantic word fluency. Neuropsychologia, 28(8), 283–289.
Miller, E. (1984). Verbal fluency as a function of a measure of verbal intelligence and in relation to different types of cerebral pathology. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23, 53–57.
Mitrushina, M., Boone, K. B., Razan, J., & D’Elia, L. F. (2005). Handbook of normative data for neuropsychological assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mok, E. H. L., Lam, L. C, W., & Chiu, H. F. K. (2004). Category Verbal Fluency Test
Performance in Chinese Elderly with Alzheimer’s Disease. Dementia and geriatric cognitive disorders, 18, 120-124.
Monsch, A. U., Bondi, M. W., Butters, N., Salmon, D. P., Katzman, R., & Thal, L. J. (1992). Comparisons of verbal fluency tasks in the detection of dementia of the Alzheimer type. Archives of Neurology, 49, 1253–1258.
Murphy, K. R. ＆ Davidshofer, C. O. (2005). Psychological testing: principles and application (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N. J.: Pearson/ Prentice Hall.
Nelson, H. E. (1976). A modified card sorting test sensitive to frontal lobe defects. Cortex, 12,313-324.
Norris, M. P., Blankenship-Reuter, L., Snow-Turek, A.L., & Finch, J. (1995). Influence of depression on verbal fluency performance. Aging and Cognition, 2, 206–215.
Ostrosky-Solis, F., Gutierrez, A. L., Flores, M. R., ＆ Ardila, A. (2007). Same or different? Semantic verbal fluency across Spanish-speackers from different countries. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 367-377.
Owen, A. M., Downes, J. J., Sahakian, B. J., Polkey, C. E., ＆ Robbins, T. W. (1990). Planning and spatial working memory following frontal lobe lesions in man, Neuropsychologia, 28, 1021–1034.
Parker, D. M., & Crawford, J. R. (1992). Assessment of frontal lobe function. In J. R. Crawford, D. M. Parker, & W. W. McKinlay (Eds.), A handbook of neuropsychologyical assessment ( pp. 267-291). London: Erlbaum.
Pasquier, F., Lebert, F., Grymonprez, L., & Petit, H. (1995). Verbal fluency in dementia of frontal type and dementia of Alzheimer type. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 58, 81–84.
Peña-Casanova, J., Quiñones-Ubeda, S., Gramunt-Fombuena, N., Quintana-Aparicio, M., Aguilar, M., Badenes, D., et al. (2009). Spanish Multicenter Normative Studies (NEURONORMA Project): norms for verbal fluency tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(4), 395-411.
Perani, D., Cappa, S. F., Bettinardi, V., Bressi, S., Gorno-Tempini, M., Matarrese, M. et al. (1995). Different neural systems for the recognition of animals and man-made tools. Neuroreport, 6(12), 1637-1641.
Phillips, L. H. (1997). Do ‘’frontal tests’’ measure executive function? Issues of assessment and evident from fluency tests. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function (pp.191-213). UK: Psychology Press.
Rabbitt, P. (1997). Introduction: Methodologies and models in the study of executive function. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function (pp.1-38). UK: Psychology Press.
Rajah, M. N. & D’ Esposito, M. (2005). Region-specific changes in prefrontal function with age: a review of PET and fMRI studies on working and episodic memory. Brain, 128, 1964-1983.
Randolph, C., Braun, A. R., Goldberg, T. E., & Chase, T. N. (1993). Semantic fluency in Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s Disease: Dissociation of storage and retrieval failures. Neuropsychology, 7, 82–88.
Ratcliff, G., Dodge, H., Birzescu, M., & Ganguli, M. (2003). Tracking cognitive functioning over time: Ten-year longitudinal data from a community-based study. Applied Neuropsychology, 10(2), 76-88.
Ratcliff, G., Ganguli, M., Chandra, V., Sharma, S., Belle, S., Seaberg, E., et al. (1998). Effects of literacy and education on measures of word fluency. Brain and Language, 61, 115–122.
Ravdin, L. D., Katzen, H. L., Agrawal, P., Relkin, N. R. (2003). Letter and semantic fluency in older adults: effects of mild depressive symptoms and age-stratified normative data. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(2), 195-202.
Raz, N., Briggs, S. D., Marks, W., & Acker, J. D. (1999). Age-related deficits in generateon and manipulateon of mental images: Ⅱ. The role of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Psychology and aging, 14(3), 436-444.
Raz, N., Lindenberger, U., Rodrigue, K. M., Kennedy, K. M., Head, D., Williamson, A. et al. (2005). Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cerebral Cortex, 15(11), 1676-1689.
Richards, M., & Brayne, C. (1996). Cross-cultural research into cognitive impairment and dementia: Some practical experiences. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 11, 383-388.
Riva, D., Nichelli, F., & Devoti, M. (2000). Developmental aspects of verbal fluency and confrontation naming in children. Brain and Language, 71, 267-284.
Robert, P.H., Mogneco, V., Marmod, D., Chaix, I., Thauby, S., Benoit, M. et al. (1997).Verbal fluency in schizophrenia: The role of semantic clustering in category instance generation. European Psychiatry, 12, 124–129.
Rosen, V. M., & Engle, R. W. (1997). The role of working memory capacity in retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 211-227.
Rosen, W. G. (1980). Verbal fluency in aging and dementia. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 2, 135-146.
Rosser, A. & Hodges, J. R. (1994). Initial letter and semantic category fluency in Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and progressive supranuclear palsy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 57, 1389–1394.
Royall, D. R, Mahurin, R. K., & Gray, K.F. (1992). Bedside assessment of executive cognitive impairment: the executive interview. Journal of the Ameriman Geriatrics Society, 40(12), 1221-1226.
Ruff, R. M., Light, R. H., Parker, S. B., & Levin, H. S. (1996). Benton Controlled Oral Word Association Test: Reliability and updated norms. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 11, 329-338.
Ruff, R. M., Light, R. H., Parker, S. B., & Levin, H. S. (1997). The psychological construct of word fluency. Brain and Language, 57, 394-405.
Salmon, D. P., Jin, H., Zhang, M., Grant, I., & Yu, E. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment of Chinese elderly in the Shanghai dementia survey. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9, 159–168.
Sautter, F. J., McDermott, B. E., Cornwell, J. M., Borges, A., Johnson, J., Vasterling, J. J., et al. (1997). A Comparison of Neuropsychological Deficits in Familial Schizophrenics, Nonfamilial Schizophrenics, and Normal Controls. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 185(10), 641-643.
Shimamura, A. P., & Jurica, P. J. (1994). Memory interference effects and aging: Findings from a test of frontal lobe function. Neuropsychology, 8, 408-412.
Silva, C.G. ,Petersson,K.M., Faisca, L. ,Ingvar, M. & Reis, A. (2004). The effects of literacy and education on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of semantic verbal fluency. Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 266-77.
Sliwinski, M. & Buschke, H. (1999). Cross-sectional and longitude relationships among age, cognition, and processing speed. Psychology and aging, 14(1), 18-33.
Smith, D. B., Craft, B. R., & Collins, J. (1986). Behavioral characteristics of epilepsy patients compared with normal controls. Epilepsia, 27(6), 760–768.
Solomon, P. R., Hirschoff, A., Kelly, B., Relin, M., Brush, M., DeVeaux, R. D. et al. (1998). A seven minute neurocognitive screening battery highly sensitive to Alzheimer’ disease. Archives of Neurology, 55, 349–355.
Stern, Y., Richards, M., Sano, M., & Mayeux, R. (1993). Comparison of cognitive changes in patients with Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Archives of Neurology, 50, 1040–1045.
Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stuss, D. T., Alexander, M. P., Hamer, L., Palumbo, C., Dempster, R., Binns, M. et al. (1998). The effects of focal anterior and posterior brain lesions on verbal fluency. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4, 265-278.
Stuss, D. T. & Levine, B. (2002). Adult clinical neuropsychology: lessons from studies of the frontal lobes. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 401-433.
Swirsky-Sacchetti, T., Mitchell, D. R., Seward, J., Gonzales, C., Lublin, F., Knobler, R. et al. (1992). Neuropsychological and structural brain lesions in multiple sclerosis: A regional analysis. Neurology, 42(7), 1291–1295.
Tombaugh, T. N., Kozak, J., & Rees, L. (1999). Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Archives of clinical neuropsychology, 14(2), 167-177.
Trichard, C., Martinot, J.L., Alagille, M., & Masure, M.C. (1995). Time course of prefrontal lobe dysfunction in severely depressed in-patients: A longitudinal neuropsychological study. Psychological Medicine, 25, 79–85.
Troyer, A. K., Moscovitch, M., Winocur, G., Alexander, M. P., & Stuss, D., (1998). Clustering and switching on verbal fluency: the effects of focal frontal and temporal lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia, 36(6), 499-504.
Vilkki, J. & Holst, P. (1994). Speed and flexibility on word fluency tasks after focal brain lesions. Neuropsychologia, 32, 1257–1262.
Whatmough, C., Chertkow, H., Murtha, S., Templeman, D., Babins, L., & Kelner, N. (2003). The semantic category effect increases with worsening anomia in Alzheimer’s type dementia. Brain and Language, 84, 134-147.
Wilson, B. A., Watson, P. C., Baddeley, A. D., Emslie, H., & Evans, J. (2000). Improvement or simply practice? The effects of twenty repeated assessments on people with and without brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 469-479.
Wolfe, J., Granholm, E., Butters, N., & Saunders, E. (1987). Verbal memory deficits associated with major affective disorders: A comparison of unipolar and bipolar patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 13, 83–92.
Yang, C. C., Hua, M. S., Chiu, M. J., Chen, S. T., Yip, P. K., Chen, T. F. et al. (2006). Semantic memory deficits in low- educated patients with Alzheimer’s Disease. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 105(11), 926-935.
Yip, P. K., Shyu, Y. I., Liu, S. I., Lee, J. Y., Chou, C. F., & Chen, R. C. (1992). An epidemiological survey of dementia among elderly in an urban district of Taipei. Acta Neurological Sinica, 1, 347-354.
Zec, R. F. (1995). The neuropsychology of aging. Experimental gerontology, 30, 431-442.
Zimmerman, M. E., Brickman, A. M., Paul, R. H., Grieve, S. M., Tate, D. F., Gunstad, J., et al. (2006). The relationship between frontal gray matter volume and cognition varies across the healthy adult lifespan. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatriy, 14, 823-833.