臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

西元1987年美國胸腔協會將慢性阻塞性肺病(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease；COPD)分為慢性氣管炎(chronic bronchitis)、肺氣腫(pulmonary emphysema)與周邊氣道疾病(peripheral airway disease)三種類型。西元2001年之全球性COPD行動計畫(Global initiative of chronic Obstructive Lung Diseases；GOLD)將COPD定義為逐漸惡化且無法完全可逆之小氣道病變所導致之吐氣氣流限制(flow limitation)。每位慢性阻塞性肺病患者無論在臨床病徵抑或生理病理學上的表現通常都不相同，代表它不是單一的疾病。營養不良或體重減輕是COPD病患常見之臨床表現，COPD病患一旦發生體重減輕，代表其罹病(morbidity)率和死亡(mortality)率會隨體重減輕程度而增加。導致COPD病患體重下降的機制包括下列多種因素：營養熱量攝取不足、身體熱量消耗高於同體重之常人、原本發生於肺臟之發炎介質(inflammatory cytokines)溢流至血液中而誘發全身發炎反應(systemic inflammation)、組織長期慢性缺氧、COPD急性惡化時之異常代謝，甚至治療COPD之常用藥物(類固醇、乙二型交感神經興奮劑及茶鹼等)都會干擾病患之食慾與新陳代謝。一般而言，COPD病患群中Post-bronchodilator FEV1越糟糕的，其發生營養不良之風險也就越高。臨床研究證實：年齡、Post-bronchodilator FEV1和體重減輕是決定COPD病患死亡的三個獨立危險因子。三者之中，年齡是無法改變的事實，藥物治療改善Post-bronchodilator FEV1通常是微乎其微，但是臨床研究證實：營養補充治療使原本體重減輕COPD病患增加體重，可以降低其死亡率。營養不良及體重減輕是決定COPD病患死亡的三個獨立危險因子，唯一臨床可以改變的項目。
就目前臨床研究之實證資料而言，藥物治療、有氧運動和營養補充治療是臨床照護COPD病患的三大支柱，任何項目都不可偏廢。雖然營養補充治療非常重要，但體重減輕COPD病患可能會併發復食症候群的風險，不得不小心謹慎。
研究之緣由起於在檢視美國國家衛生院(NIH)之醫學資料庫PubMed後發現：目前尚無文獻探討慢性阻塞性肺病在急性惡化情況下併發復食症候群之相關資料，因此採用回顧性世代研究方式(retrospective cohort study)探討本院自2014年8月至2015年12月以COPD with acute exacerbation為首要診斷而住院之病患群。蒐集分析的資料包括：性別、年齡、身體質量指數(body mass index；BMI)、住院前四天之每日攝取總熱量(daily total energy intake；TEI)、以現今體重校正之住院前四天之每日攝取總熱量(daily total energy intake index；TEII)、最近肺功能檢查post-bronchodilator FEV1、CMI (case-mixed index)疾病診斷相關群個案混合指數、APACHE-II (Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation, 2nd edition)疾病嚴重指數、Charlson共病指數(Charlson Comorbidity Index; CCI)、剛住院第一次動脈血液氣體分析之PaO2/FiO2、PaCO2和pH，住院期間是否發生譫妄或精神錯亂(delirium)狀況?是否接受氣管內插管及使用侵入性呼吸輔助器? 是否呼吸器脫離困難?住院天數及存活狀況。
目前世界上尚無復食症候群之實驗室診斷標準與共識，因此我們設定復食症候群之實驗室診斷標準為：再餵食或復食後血液中細胞內之重要離子(P、Mg、K)濃度至少其中之一下降之幅度，和剛住院時之第一個數值比較，要大於15%而且要低於正常範圍之最低值。總共有和61位COPD病患因急性惡化住院而且資料完整符合資料分析之條件，結論為：(1)慢性阻塞性肺病在急性惡化情況下，併發生復食症候群之發生率(incidence)為38%。(2)導致此特殊病患群產生復食症候群之危險因子(risk factors)有高齡、低身體質量指數(BMI)、高每公斤體重餵食熱量(daily total energy intake adjusted by current body weight)、低吸氣管擴張劑後第一秒吐氣量(post-bronchodilator FEV1)、高APACHE-II疾病嚴重指數、低肺臟氧合指數(PaO2/FiO2)、高動脈血二氧化碳分壓(PaCO2)、低動脈血酸鹼值(pH)及剛住院時周邊血液白血球數超過一萬。此外，有共病者也較容易併發復食症候群者。(3)一旦併發復食症候群者會有較高的機率發生譫妄或精神錯亂(delirium)、接受氣管內插管使用侵入性呼吸輔助器、呼吸器脫離困難及較長住院天數。(4)在此研究病患群中沒有死亡案例。
所有醫療團隊成員在臨床照護COPD病患過程中，不可忽視患者有食物攝取不足、體重減輕(body weight loss)、營養不良、肌力及耐力降低、惡病質(cachexia)及少肉症(sarcopenia)等營養問題。同時在營養補充或復食過程中，初始之熱量應從10 Kca/kg/day開始，逐漸隨病患生理耐受程度慢慢增加，監測血液中細胞內之重要離子(P、Mg、K)濃度及矯正其異常，以預防復食症候群之發生。

The American Thoracic Society (ATS) statement in 1987 documented that chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) comprised three categories of diseases based on clinical symptoms and histopathological findings：chronic bronchitis、pulmonary emphysema and peripheral airway disease. The first GOLD (Global initiative of chronic Obstructive Lung Diseases) clinical guideline released in 2001 defined COPD as a disease state characterized by progressive development of airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The airflow limitation is usually progressive and usually results from an abnormal response of the lungs to noxious particles or gases.
COPD is a heterogeneous disease in terms of clinical, physiological, and pathological presentation. Weight loss in patients with COPD is a common phenomenon, it is known that loss of weight in patients with COPD is associated with higher morbidity and mortality rates.
Weight loss in patients with COPD may be a multifactorial phenomenon, resulting from a combination of various pathophysiological events. Abnormalities in energy balance, increased levels of cytokines, chronic hypoxia, COPD acute exacerbation, and medications with corticosteroids, β-2 adrenergics and theophylline can influence food intake, substrate utilization and metabolic efficiency. It had been confirmed that the incidence or prevalence of malnutrition in COPD patients was negatively correlated with the post-bronchodilator FEV1.
Previous studies in COPD patients had shown us that advanced ageing, post-bronchodilator FEV1 and body weight loss were three independent risk factors for patients’ mortality. Among these three risk factors, ageing is unavoidable and unmodifiable, post-bronchodilator FEV1 could not improve a lot despite pharmaceutical intervention based on the progressive not fully irreversible flow limitation characteristic of COPD. There was one promising study that showed nutritional supplementation to increase body weight in COPD patients could decreased the risk of mortality. Body weight loss in COPD patients was reversible after nutritional support, and an important modifiable factor for survival. Pharmacotherapy, nutriceuticals and aerobic exercise constitute the current three pillars of COPD management. When malnourished COPD patients are encouraged to increase their food intake, or refed through nasogastric route, or supported with parenteral nutrition, they encounter the risk of refeeding syndrome (RFS) associated with morbidities and mortality.
There is currently no data concerning the incidence, risk factors for and impacts of RFS in COPD patients with acute exacerbation after searching journal research papers from the PubMed of the NCBI of the National Library of Medicine of the NIH of USA, a retrospective cohort study was launched to answer those questions. The discharge notes of patients with primary diagnosis of COPD with acute exacerbation admitted from August 2014 to December 2015 were reviewed.
Demographic data (age and sex), body mass index (BMI), average daily total energy intake (TEI) of the first four hospitalization days, average daily total energy intake adjusted by current body weight (TEII) of the first four hospitalization days, the last post-bronchodilator FEV1, CMI (case-mixed index), APACHE-II (Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation, 2nd edition) score, Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI), the initial arterial blood gas data with calculated P1O2/FiO2 were collected. Laboratory RFS was arbitrarily defined as any of the serum P, Mg, or K declined 15% or more after feeding in comparison with the pre-feeding one and fell below the lower limit of normal ranges.
During this period 61 COPD patients with acute exacerbation were eligible for analysis and 38% (23 patients) had RFS. The risk factors for RFS in COPD patients with acute exacerbation after admission were advanced age, low BMI, high TEII, low post-bronchodilator FEV1, high APACHE-II score, low PaO2/FiO2, high PaCO2, low pH, and leukocytosis at admission. Patients with more comorbidities were prone to developing RFS.Those who developed RFS had high risk to suffer from delirium, be intubated and receive invasive mechanical ventilation with difficult weaning from the ventilator, and have longer length of stay (LOS) in hospital. No in-hospital mortality was found.
We concluded that RFS should not be overlooked in COPD patients with acute exacerbation. Awareness of this feeding-related complication is necessary for early diagnosis and appropriate management to prevent morbidity and mortality. Initial calorie intake from 10 Kcal/kg/day with slow progression and monitoring of P, Mg and K are mandatory.

Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)? 1
1.2 What is GOLD (Global Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease)? 3
1.3 Clinical manifestations of COPD 4
1.4 COPD epidemiology and health burden 8
1.5 Pathogenesis of COPD 12
1.6 COPD comorbidities 20
Chapter 2 Paper Reviews 24
2.1 COPD with acute exacerbation 24
2.2 Malnutrition in COPD and pulmonary cachexia syndrome 28
2.3 Refeeding syndrome 38
2.3.1 Carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism 41
2.3.2 Body fluid imbalance with water retention or dehydration 43
2.3.3 Thiamin deficiency 44
2.3.4 Hypophosphatemia 45
2.3.5 Hypomagnesemia 52
2.3.6 Hypokalemia 55
Chapter 3 Materials and Methods 62
Chapter 4 Results 69
Chapter 5 Discussion 76
Chapter 6 Conclusion 89
Chapter 7 Reference 93

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