臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

紅藜 (Chenopodium sp.) 具有豐富的營養價值及鮮豔色澤。其所具有抗發炎及驅蟲功效，咸信為其抗氧化的結果。然而這些成分會受植物的品種及採收季節等因素之影響。其色素為很好的天然色素來源，但很不穩定，特別容易受到pH值及高溫破壞。而省產紅藜相關營養成分及抗氧化成分尚未有人深入探討，故本研究以省產紅藜種子為原料，測定其一般營養成分、抗氧化成分及抗氧化力。再進一步探討品種 (黃色和紅色) 及季節 (夏季和冬季) 的影響。並將其抗氧化活性成分加以分離純化，以瞭解其貢獻程度。最後，以紅藜色素為模擬系統，針對有機酸之添加，探討其色素加熱再生後，顏色品質的變化及貯藏安定性。
結果顯示，紅藜種子抗氧化成分最適萃取條件為紅藜：水＝1: 100比例，於4℃下浸置12小時。紅藜含豐富的蛋白質 (14.4%)、膳食纖維 (14%)、鈣 (2523 ppm)、鐵 (55.6 ppm)和鋅 (24.5 ppm)等礦物質，麩胺酸 (3.48%)、精胺酸 (1.59%)及天門冬胺酸 (1.48%)等胺基酸。酚類化合物以芸香苷為主，甜菜色素含量高達10%乾重。在品種方面，紅色品種比黃色品種有較高的澱粉、粗脂肪、鈣、鈉、胺基酸、總酚及betacyanins。黃色品種則在膳食纖維、粗蛋白質、鋅、鐵，類黃酮、酚酸 (漂木酸、香豆酸、阿魏酸) 及betaxanthin含量較多。抗氧化成分方面，FRAP還原力及螯合亞鐵能力以黃色品種高於紅色品種，但DPPH清除能力則以紅色品種優於黃色品種。在季節方面，一般營養、抗氧化成分、色澤品質、及抗氧化力皆以冬季採收者高於夏季採收者。經由主成分分析 (PCA)，所有樣品可利用品種及季節加以區隔。進一步利用LC及HPLC純化紅藜

粗萃液。發現，紅藜還原能力主要是來自betaxanthins，其貢獻程度為71.70%，而DPPH清除能力和螯合亞鐵能力則來自betacyanins，貢獻程度分別為57.67%、65.62%。
至於模擬系統中添加有機酸的結果顯示，添加醋酸、檸檬酸和抗壞血酸等有機酸者對紅藜色素並不具有增色作用，但不論在pH 2或pH 4系統均有保色效果，尤其在加熱再生後更為明顯。26天貯藏後，添加檸檬酸及醋酸具有保色效果，添加抗壞血酸則沒有。推測其保色機制，在前者主要為酸可作為螯合劑，中和betanin部份的親電性，而減少水的親核性攻擊；後者則主要來自甜菜色素-酸複合物的效果。

Djulis (Chenopodium sp.), which rich in nutrients and betalains pigmemt, is believed to have anti-inflammation and insect repellant due to its antioxidant activity. The main antioxidant components of Djulis are phenolic compounds and pigment, and those components varied in different varieties and harvest seasons. The pigment, a good source of natural pigment, is very unstable, especially when under improper pH value and high temperature. However, very few information about Djulis can be found. Therefore, this study is aimed to investigate general nutrition components, antioxidant components and antioxidant capacity of Djulis. The influence of varieties (red and yellow) and seasons (summer and winter) on the items mentioned above were also studied. In addition, we tried to find the major components responsible for their antioxidant capacities. Finally, the changes of pigment quality after heating and regeneration of Djulis pigment model systems added with organic acid were elucidated.
Results showed that the Djulis and water in the ratio of 1:100 and under 4℃ for twelve hours was the optimum condition to extract antioxidant components of the Djulis seed. Djulis contained much more protein (14.4%), dietary fiber (14%), calcium (2523 ppm), iron (55.6 ppm), zinc (24.5 ppm), glutamic acid (3.48%), arginine (1.59%) and aspartic acid (1.48%) than other
cereal grains. Rutin exhibited as the main phenolic compounds of Djulis and
betalains contents reached about 10% dry weight. Samples of red variety contained more starch, crude fat, calcium, sodium, amino acid, total polyphenols and betacyanins. While yellow variety samples showed higher content of dietary fiber, crude protein, zinc and iron, flavonoid, phenolic acids (chlorogenic acid, coumaric acid and ferulic acid) and betazanthins. As to the antioxidant capacity, FRAP reducing power and ferrous ions chelating ability are higher in yellow variety than that in the red one, but DPPH scavenging activity in red variety was better than that in yellow one. For the harvest season, winter harvested samples exhibited higher nutrition components, antioxidant compounds, color quality and antioxidant capacity than summer harvested samples. Further analysis through PCA showed that all samples were discriminated well according to varieties and seasons. Further purification by LC and HPLC of water extract of Djulis showed that reducing power was mainly attributed to its betaxathins with contribution percentage 71.70 %, while DPPH scavenging activity and ferrous ions chelating ability were attributed to its betacyanins with contribution percentage 57.67 % and 65.52 %, respectively.
In the acid added Djulis pigment model systems, organic acids were found no color hyperchromic effect on Djulis. But they exhibited color protection both in the pH 2 and pH 4 model systems, especially after heating and regeneration. Only samples with citric acid and acetic acid remained their color after storage for 26 days, but not the one with ascorbic acid. It suggested that the protecting function on pigment, in the former, was that the acid as the chelating agent to neutralize betanin electrophile and reduce nucleophilic substitution; in the later, it might be attributed to the effect of the betanin-acid complex.

中文摘要 I
Abstract III
謝誌 V
目錄 VI
圖表目錄 X
第1章 前言 1
第2章 文獻回顧 3
2.1 食用藜簡介 3
2.1.1 地理分佈 3
2.1.2 植株性狀 3
2.1.3 營養成分 4
2.1.3.1 澱粉 4
2.1.3.2 脂肪 4
2.1.3.3 蛋白質 5
2.1.3.4 維生素、礦物質 5
2.1.3.5 抗營養因子 6
2.1.3.6 甜菜鹼衍生物 7
2.1.4 用途 7
2.2 自由基的形成 9
2.2.1 自由基與活性氧 9
2.3 酚類化合物簡介 11
2.3.1 酚類生理活性 13
2.4 影響抗氧化因子 14
2.4.1 品種 14
2.4.2 生育期 15
2.4.3 生長季節與溫度 15
2.4.4 貯藏方式 16
2.4.5 採收後處理與加工條件 16
2.4.6 其他 16
2.5. Betalains簡介 17
2.5.1 Betalains之生合成 17
2.5.2 影響Betalains之安定性 20
2.5.2.1 色素濃度與結構特性 20
2.5.2.2 pH值 21
2.5.2.3 熱 21
2.5.2.4 氧氣 22
2.5.2.5 光 22
2.5.2.6 食品添加物 22
2.5.3 Betalains之生理活性 22
2.5.3.1 抗氧化作用 22
2.5.3.2 止痛及抗發炎 23
2.5.3.3 抑制腫瘤 23
第3章 材料與方法 24
3.1 試驗材料 24
3.2 試驗藥品 24
3.3 試驗儀器 24
3.4試驗設計 25
3.4.1 紅藜抗氧化性成分最適萃取之探討 25
3.4.2 紅藜一般營養成分及胺基酸組成、抗氧化成分 (總酚、類 黃酮、色素)、水萃液之色澤、色素吸光值、及抗氧化力的 影響 26
3.4.3 不同季節、品種對於紅藜營養成分、水萃液之色澤、色素 吸光值、抗氧化成分 (總酚、類黃酮、色素) 及抗氧化力的 影響 26
3.4.4 抗氧化成分之分離、純化 26
3.4.5 紅藜色素模擬系統中添加有機酸對色素吸光值、色澤品質 及貯存之穩定性之影響 26
3.5 試驗方法 27
3.5.1 紅藜種子色素粉末之製備 27
3.5.2 營養成分分析 27
3.5.2.1 水分含量分析 27
3.5.2.2 水活性分析 27
3.5.3 顏色品質測定 27
3.5.3.1 L a b值的測定 27
3.5.3.2色素吸光值 32
3.5.4 抗氧化成分測定 32
3.5.4.1總酚含量測定 32
3.5.4.2類黃酮含量測定 32
3.5.4.3酚類化合物分析 32
3.5.4.4甜菜色素含量 33
3.5.5. 抗氧化能力分析 34
3.5.5.1 FRAP還原力測定 34
3.5.5.2 DPPH自由基清除能力測定 34
3.5.5.3 FICA螯合亞鐵測定 34
3.5.6 抗氧化活性成分之分離與純化 35
3.5.6.1 管柱層析 35
3.5.6.2 HPLC純化 35
3.7 統計分析 35
第4章 結果與討論 36
4.1 紅藜種子抗氧化成分最適萃取方法 36
4.2 紅藜種子營養成分分析 38
4.2.1 一般營養成分分析 38
4.2.2 胺基酸成分分析 39
4.3 紅藜抗氧化成分分析 42
4.3.1 各酚類化合物分析 42
4.3.2 色素分析 42
4.3.2.1 光譜分析 45
4.3.2.2 色澤分析 45
4.3.2.3 HPLC分析 48
4.4. 抗氧化力分析 51
4.5 不同品種與季節紅藜成分比較 51
4.5.1 不同品種與季節紅藜一般營養成分比較 51
4.5.2 不同季節與品種紅藜胺基酸成分比較 54
4.6 不同品種、季節之紅藜抗氧化成分影響 56
4.6.1 不同品種、季節之紅藜類黃酮之影響 56
4.6.2 不同品種、季節之紅藜總酚含量之比較 58
4.6.3 不同品種、季節之紅藜各酚類化合物分析 60
4.6.4 不同品種、季節之紅藜之betacyanin含量分析 62
4.6.4.1 光譜分析 62
4.6.4.2 HPLC分析 65
4.7 不同品種、季節之紅藜之顏色變化 67
4.8 不同品種、季節之紅藜抗氧化能力分析 69
4.8.1 還原力 69
4.8.2 DPPH自由基清除能力 69
4.8.3 FICA螯合亞鐵能力 71
4.9 不同季節、品種紅藜色澤、酚類、抗氧化之相關性分析 之變化 74
4.10 不同品種及季節之紅藜主成分分析 75
4.11 抗氧化活性成分之分離純化 77
4.11.1 還原力 77
4.11.2 DPPH清除自由基能力 80
4.15 抗氧化成分之貢獻程度 80
4.16 添加有機酸加熱處理及再生對於紅藜色素穩定性影響之探討 85
4.16.1 A530吸光值及色素保留率 85
4.16.2 A480吸光值及色素保留率 88
4.16.3 色澤品質之變化 88
4.17 添加有機酸對加熱處理及再生後貯藏紅藜色素穩定性之探討 95
4.17.1 A530及紅色素保留率變化 95
4.12.2 A480及黃色素保留率變化 98
4.17.3 色澤品質之變化 100
結論 105
參考文獻 106
作者簡介 118

參考文獻
王惠娟。2005。紅藜不同發育階段光合作用潛力及相關生理活動之變化。屏東科技大學森林系碩士論文。
朱格麟 。1995。藜科植物的起源、分化和地理分布。植物分類學報 34：486-504。
行政院衛生署台灣食品營養成分資料庫。2006年12月30日，取自：http://www.doh.gov.tw/newdoh/90-org/org-3/database/4-1.html。
吳曉琪。2001。不同品系及生長季節之狼尾草抗氧化活性的探討。國立屏東科技大學食品科學系碩士論文。
美國農業部食品資料庫。2007年3月1日，取自：http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/srch/search.htm.
林怡君。2002。紅肉火龍果 (Hylocereus polyrhizus) 甜菜苷色素定性與安定性之研究。私立東海大學食品科學研究所碩士論文。
林怡君、蔡正宗。2003。紅肉火龍果 (Hylocereus polyrhizus) 果汁色彩安定性之研究。東海學報 44: 75-81。
林曉珮、劉建忠、蔡正宗。2000。仙人掌果 (Opuntia dillenii) 果汁色素化學結構鑑定之研究。台灣農業化學與食品科學 39: 51-7。
邱蕙萍。2002。紅龍果浸漬酒成分與色澤變化之探討。國立屏東科技大學食品科學系碩士論文。
郁凱衡。1999。天然酚類抗氧化劑。科學與技術 31: 43-51。
梁佑慎。2004。市售新鮮蔬果抗氧化力之研究。屏東科技大學熱帶農業暨國際合作研究所碩士論文。
郭淑綾。2002。不同甘藷品種皮、葉及藤之抗氧化功能評估。實踐大學

食品營養所碩士論文。
陳惠英、顏國欽。1998。自由基抗氧化防禦與人體健康。Nutritional Sciences Journal 23: 105-21。
黃志煜、吳志鴻、張振生、葉永廉、張上鎮。2003。製程與採收季節對茶葉抽出物抗氧化活性之影響。臺大實驗林研究報告 17: 231-7。
黃喜玲、莊允當、劉曜東。1992。仙人掌果實紅色素之特性與穩定性改善之研究。台灣糖業研究所研究彙報 138: 37-55。
黃督方。2003。番石榴果汁澄清化處理與貯藏穩定性之探討。國立屏東科技大學食品科學系碩士論文。
趙璧玉、林碧秀、張恬慈、蔡旻汎、楊棋明。2003。白肉紅龍果與紅肉紅龍果抗氧化性之研究。華岡農科學報 11: 13-28。
鄧秀玫。2004。仙人掌紅龍果(Hylocereus spp.)果皮成分分析及品質評價之研究。國立屏東科技大學農園生產系碩士論文。
蕭增宜。2006。添加物對火龍果果皮色素萃取液的顏色及抗氧化力之影響。國立屏東科技大學食品科學系碩士論文。
錢明賽。2003。第三屆國際營養及機能性食品會議。食品工業 35: 67-73。
Aherne SA and O’Brien NM. 2002. Dietary Flavonols: chemistry, food content, and metabolism. Nutrition 18: 75-81.
Al-Maiman SA, Ahamad D. 2002. Changes in physical and chemicalproperties during pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) fruit maturation. Food Chemistry 76: 437-41.
Al-Saikhan MS, Howard LR, Miller JC. 1995. Antioxidant activity and total phenolic in different genotypes of potato (Solanum tuberosum, L.). Journal of Food Science 60: 341-3.
Attoe EL, von Elbe JH. 1985. Oxygen involvement in betanine degradation: effect of antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50: 106–10.
Awad MA, Jager AD. 2003. Influences of air and controlled atmosphere storage on the concentration of potentially healthful phenolics in apples and other fruits. Postharvest Biology and Technology 27: 53-8.
Ayala-Zavala JF, Wang SY, Wang CY, and Gonzalez-Aguilar GA. 2004. Effect of storage temperatures on antioxidant capacity and aroma compounds in strawberry fruit. LWT - Food Science and Technology 37： 687-95.
Barak AJ, Beckenhauer HC, Tuma DJ. 1996. Betaine, ethanol, and the liver: a review. Alcohol 13: 395-8.
Bhargava A, Shukla S, Ohri D. 2006. Chenopodium quinoa- An Indian perspective. Industrial Crops and Products 73-87.
Bilyk A, Howard M. 1982. Reversibility of thermal degradation of betacyanins under the influence of isoascorbic acid. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 30: 906-8.
Bravo L. 1998. Polyphenols: Chemistry, dietary sources, metabolism, and nutritional significance. Nutrition Reviews 317-33.
Cai Y, Sun M, Corke H. 2003. Antioxidant activity of betalains from plants of the Amaranthaceae. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51: 2288-94.
Castellar R, Oboan JM, Alacid M, Loapez JAF. 2003. Color properties and stability of betacyanins from Opuntia fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51: 2772-6.
Chambers ST, Lever M. 1996. Betaines and urinary tract infections. Nephorn. 74: 1-10.
Conquer JA, Maiani G, Azzini E, Raguzzini A, Holub BJ. 1998. Supplementation with quercetin markedly increases plasma quercetin concentration without effect on selected risk factors for heart disease inhealthy subjects. The Journal of Nutrition 128: 593-7.
Daeseok H, Seok JK, Sang HK, Dong MK. 1998. Repeated regeneration of degraded red beet juice pigment in the presence of antioxidants. Journal of Food Science 63: 69-72.
Decker EA, Welch B. 1990. Role of ferritin as a lipid oxidation catalyst in muscle food. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 38: 674.
Dini I, Tenore GC, Trimarco E, Dini A. 2006. Two novel betaine derivatives from Kancolla seeds (Chenopodiaceae). Food Chemistry 98: 209-13.
Duh PD, Yeh DB, Yen GC. 1992. Extraction and identification of an antioxidative component from peanut hulls. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 69: 814-18.
Duh PD, Yen GC. 1997. Antioxidative activity of three herbal water extracts. Food Chemistry 60: 639-45.
Dumas Y, Dadomo M., Lucca GD, Grolier P. 2003. Effects of environmental factors and agricultural techniques on antioxidant content of tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 83: 369-82.
Emmons CL, Peterson DM. 2001. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of oat as affected by cultivar and location. Crop Science 41: 1676-81.
Emmons CL, Peterson DM. Paul GL, 1999. Antioxidant capability of oat (Avena sativa L.) extracts. 2. In vitro antioxidant activity and contents of phenolic and totol antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47: 4895-8.
Fabjan N, Rode J, Kosir IJ, Z Zhang, Z, Kreft I. 2003.Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) as asource of dietary rutin and qurcetin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51: 6452-5.
Fang YZ, Yang S, Wu G. 2002. Free radicals, antioxidants, and nutrition. Nutrition 18: 872-9.
Francis FJ. 1999. Anthocyanins and betalains. In：Colorants Ch.7. Eagan press by the American association of cereal chemist, Inc., U.S.A.
Gilbert DL. 2000. Fifty years of radical ideas. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 899:1-14.
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC, Cross CE. 1992. Free radicals antioxidant and human disease: where are we know? The Journal of laboratory and clinical medicine 119: 598-620.
Halliwell B. 1994. Free radical and antioxidant: A personal view. Nutrition Research 52: 253-65.
Han D, Kim SJ, Kim SH, Kim DM. 1998. Repeated regeneration of degraded red beet juice pigments in the presence of antioxidants. Journal of Food Science 63: 69-72.
Hankey GJ, Eikelboom JW. 1999. Homocysteine and vascular disease. Lancet. 354: 407-13.
Herbach KM, Stintzing FC, Carle R. 2006. Stability and color changes of thermally treated Betanin, Phyllocatin, and Hylocerenin soluteions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54: 390-8.
Huang AS, von Elbe JH. 1987. Effect of pH on the degradation and regeneration of betanine. Journal of Food Science 52: 1689-93.
Hunter KJ, Fletcher JM. 2002. The antioxidant activity and composition of fresh, frozen, jarred and canned vegetable. Innovate Food Science Emerging Technology 3: 399-406.
Iqbal S, Bhanger MI, 2006. Effect of season and production location on antioxidant activity of Moringa oleifera leaves grown in Pakistan. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19: 544-51.
Jackman RL, Smith JL.1992. Anthocyanins and betalains. Ch.8. In: Natural Food Colorants. Hendry, G.A.F. and Houghton, J. D. 2nd ed. London, New York.
Jin ZQ, Chen X. 1998. A simple reprodciple model of free radical-injured isolated heart induced by 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picryl-Hydrazyl (DPPH) . Journal of Pharmacological Methods 39: 67-70.
Johnson DL. 1990. New grains and pseudograins. p.122-7. Advances in New Crops. Timber Press. Portland.
Ju ZY, Liu YC, Zhan S, Wang M. 1996. Relationships among simple phenol flavonoid and anthocyanin in apple fruit peel at harvest and scald susceptibility. Postharvest Biology and Technology 8: 83-93.
Julkunen-Tiitto R. 1985. Phenolic constituents in leaves of northern willows: methods for the analysis of certain phenolics. Journal Agricultural Food Chemistry 33: 213-7.
Kahkonen MP, Hopia AI, Vuorela HJ, Rauha JP, Pihlaja K, Kujala TS, Heinonen M. 1999. Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compound. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47: 3954-62.
Kalt W, Forney CF, Martin A, Prior RL. 1999. Antioxidant capacity, vitamin C, phenolics, and anthocyanins after fresh storage of small fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47: 4638-44.
Kanner J, Harel S, Granit R. 2001. Betalains- A new class of dietary cationized antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49: 5178-85.
Kapadia GJ, Tokuda H, Konoshima T, Nishino H. 1996. Chemoprevention of lung and skin cancer by Beta vulgaris (beet) root extract. Cancer Letters 100: 211-4.
Kiselova Y, Ivanova D, Chervenkov T, Gerova D, Galunska B, Yankova T. 2006. Correlation between the in vitro antioxidant activity and polyphenol content of aqueous extracts from bulgarian herbs. Phytotherapy Research 20: 961-5.
Koziol MJ. 1992. Chemocal composition and nutritional evaluation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 53-68.
Kreft I, Fabjan N, Yasumoto K. 2006. Rutin content in buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) food materials and products. Food Chemistry 508-12.
Krkoskova B, Mrazova Z. 2005. Prophylactic components of buckwheat. Food Research International 38: 561-8.
Lachance PA, Nakat Z. Jeong WS. 2001. Antioxidants: an integrative approach. Nutrition 17: 835-8.
Leja M, Mareczek A, Ben J. 2003. Antioxidant properties of two apple cultivars during long-term storage. Food Chemistry 80: 303-7.
Ling WH, Wang LL, Ling M. 2002. Supplementation of the black rice outer layer fraction to rabbits decreases atherosclerotic plaque formation and increases antioxidant status. The Journal of Nutrition 132: 20-6.
Loro JF, DelrioI. 1999. Preliminary studies of analgesic and antiinflam-matory properties of Opuntia dillenii aqueous extract. Journal of Ethno-pharmacology 67: 213-8.
Lu Y, Foo LY. 2000. Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities of polyphenols from apple pomace. Food Chemistry 68: 81-5.
Mariassyova M, Silhar S. 2000. Conversion of betalains in the presence of antioxidants. Czech Journal of Food Science 18: 220-1.
Mariotti M, Alamprese C, Pagani MA, Lucisano M. 2006. Effect of puffing on ultrastructure and physical characteristics of cereal grains and flours. Journal of Cereal Science 43: 47-56.
Medoua GN, Mbome IL, Egbe TA, Mbofung CMF. 2007. Antinutritional factors changes occurring in trifoliate yam (Dioscorea dumetorum) tubers after harvest. Food Chemistry 102: 716-20.
Mermlstein NH. 1999. Health claim relating soy protein reduction of heart disease risk approved. Food Technol 53: 32.
Milgate J, Roberts DCK. 1995. The nutritional & biological significance of saponins. Nutrition Research 15: 1223-49.
Mobhammer MR, Stintzing FC, Carle R. 2006. Colour stidies on fruir juice blends from Opuntia and Hylocereus cacti and betalain-containing model solutions derived therefrom. Food Research International 38: 975-81.
Moon JH, Terao J. 1998. Antioxidant activity of caffeic acid and dihydrocaffeic acid in lard and human low-density Lipoprotein. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46: 5062-5.
Nagata C, Takatsuka N, Kurisu Y, Shimizu H. 1998. Decreased serum total cholesterol concentration is associated with high intake of soy products in Japanese men and women. The Journal of Nutrition 128: 209-13.
Niemeyer HB, Metzler M. 2003. Differences in the antioxidant activity of plant and mammalian lignans. Journal of Food Engineering 56: 255-6.
Ogungbenle HN. 2003. Nutritional evaluation and functional properties of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) flour. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 54: 153-8.
Osawa T, Katsuzaki H, Hagiwara Y, Hagiwara H, Shibamoto T. 1992. A novel antioxidant isolated from young green barley leaves. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 40: 1135-8.
Oshodi AA, Ogungbenle HN, Oladimeji MO. 1999. Chemical composition, nutritionally valuable minerals and functional properties of benniseed (Sesamum radiatum), pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) flours. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 50: 325-31.
Pasch JH, von Elbe JH. 1979. Betanine stability in buffered solutions containing organic acids, metal cations, antioxidants, or sequestrants. Journal of Food Science 44: 72-4.
Qian JY, Lin D, Huang AG. 2004. The efficiency of flavonoids in polar extracts of Lycium chinense Mill fruits as free radical scavenger. Food Chemistry 87:283-8
Repo-Carrasco R, Espinoza C, Jacobsen SE. 2003. Nutritional value and use of the Andean crops quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and kani (Chenopodium pallidicaule). Food Reviews International 19: 179-89.
Reynoso R, Garcia FA, Morales D, Gonzalez de Mejia E. 1997. Stability of betalain pigments from a cactacea fruit. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 45: 2884-9.
Rice-Evans CA, Miller NJ, Paganga G. 1997. Structure antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenollic acid. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 20: 933-56.
Robbins RJ, Kwik-Uribe C, Hammerstone JF, Schmitz HH. 2006. Analysis of flavanols in foods: what methods are required to enable meaningful health recommendations? Journal of Cardiovasc Pharmacol 7: 110-8.
Ruales J, Grijalva Y, Jaramillo PL, Nair BM. 2002. The nutritional quality of an infant food from quinoa and its effect on the plasma level of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in undernourished children. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 53: 143-54.
Ruales J, Nair BM. 1993. Content of fat, vitamins and minerals in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd) seeds. Food Chemistry 131-6.
Saint-Cricq de Gaulejac N, Provost C, Vivas N. 1999. Comparative study of polyphenol scavenging activities assessed by different methods. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47: 425-31.
Sen S, Makkar HPS, Becker K. 1998. Alfalfa saponins and their implication in animal nutrition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46: 131-40.
Shahrzad S, Bitsch I. 1996. Determination of some pharmacologically active phenolic acids in juice by high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A 741: 223-31.
Shou S, Lu G, Huan X. 2007. Seasonal variations in nutritional components of green asparagus using the mother fern cultivation. Scientia Horticulturae 112: 251-7.
Siener R, Honow R, Seidler A, Voss S, Hesse A. 2006. Oxalate contents of species of the Polygonaceae, Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae families. Food Chemistry 98: 220-4.
Southon S, Johnson IT, Tennifer MG, Price KR. 1988. The effect of Gypsophila saponins in the diet on mineral status and plasma chliesterol con centration in the rat. British Journal of Nutrition 59: 49-55.
Stintzing FC, Carle R. 2004. Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalains in plants, food, and in human nutrition. Trends in Food Science & Technology 15: 19-38.
Strack D, Vogt T, Schliemann W. 2003. Recent advances in betalain research. Pflanzenbiochem 62: 247-69.
Stuppner H, Egger R. 1996. Application of capillary zone electrophoresis to the analysis of betalains from Beta vulgaris. Journal of Chromatography A. 735: 409-13.
Thangapazham RL, Singh AK, Sharma SA, Warren J, Gaddipati JP, Maheshwari RK. 2007. Green tea polyphenols and its constituent epigallocatechin gallate inhibits proliferation of human breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Letters 245: 232-41.
Thomson WW, Whatley JM. 1980. Development of nongreen plastids.Annual Review of Plant Physiology 31: 375-94.
Vaquero MJR, Alberto MR, Manca MC, Nadra. 2007. Antibacterial effect of phenolic compounds from different wines. Food Control 18: 93-101.
von Elbe JH, Schwartz SJ, Hildenbrand BE. 1981. Loss and regeneration of betacyanin pigments during processing of red beets. Journal of Food Science 46: 1713-5.
Wang R, Koutinas AA, Campbell GM. 2007. Dry processing of oats- application of dry milling. Journal of Food Engineering 82:559-67.
Wang SY, Lin HS. 2000. Antioxidant activity in fruits and leaves of blackberry, raspberry, and strawberry varies with cultivar and developmental stage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48: 140-6.
Wang SY, Zheng W. 2001. Effect of plant growth temperature onantioxidant capacity in strawberry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49: 4977-82.
Wettasinghe M, Shahidi F. 2000. Scavenging of reactive-oxygen species and DPPH free radicals by extracts of borage and evening primrose meals. Food Chemistry 70: 17-26.
Willson MF, Whelan CJ. 1990. The evolution of fruit color in fleshy-fruited plants. The American Naturalist 136: 790-809.
Woisky R, Salatino A. 1998. Analysis of propolis：some parameters and procedures for chemical quality control. Journal of Apicultural Research 37：99-105.
Wood SG, Lawson LD, Fairbanks DJ, Robison LR, Andersen ER. 1993. Seed lipid content and fatty acid composition of three quinoa cultivars. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 41-4.
Wu LC, Hsu HW, Chen YC, Chiu CC, Lin YI, Ho JAA. 2006. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of red pitaya. Food Chemistry 319-27.
Wybraniec S, Mizrahi Y. 2002. Fruit flesh betacyanin pigments in Hylocereus Cacti. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50: 6086-9.
Yawadio R, Morita N.2007. Color enhancing effect of carboxylic acids on anthocyanins. Food Chemistry 105: 421-7.
Yen G.C, Hung C.Y. 2000. Effects of alkaline and heat treatment on antioxidative activity and total phenolics of extracts from Hsian-tsao (Mesona procumbens Hemsl.). Food Research International 33: 487-92.