臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

字色聯覺指的是在觀看無色的文字或數字時，會產生額外的色彩知覺。多數對於字色聯覺的研究多著重在拼音文字的語言（例如：英文），並發現特定的語言因素會系統性地影響感受到的聯覺顏色（例如：B連結到藍色），但對於表義文字系統（例如：中文）是否也存在類似的關聯性，仍有待進一步的探討。本研究選用四組無色漢字來釐清四個語言因素（字形、字音、字義、及表義單位）和聯覺顏色之間的關聯。我們透過一致性測驗，篩選出具有漢字字色聯覺者的參與者進行實驗。分析這些聯覺者字與字之間的聯覺顏色相似性，結果發現字義關聯性高以及重複部件（部首或聲旁）這兩項因素，顯著地和聯覺者所感知的色彩相似性有關。同音字的色彩相似性僅在聲旁重複時顯著較高，且重複聲旁也僅在同音時色彩會顯著相似，顯示部件的表音功能，也在聯覺顏色的形成扮演重要的角色。連綿詞無論是否有語音相似性（重複聲母或韻母），皆傾向引發相似的聯覺顏色。先前研究顯示英文字色聯覺者會將單字的顏色與首字或首母音連結，而漢字的聯覺則沒有單一因素可以決定整字的顏色，顯示中文字色聯覺的現象，包含了不同層次的心理語言處理歷程。

Grapheme-color synesthetes perceive unusual color perception when seeing colorless letters or digits. Previous studies on grapheme-color synesthesia used mostly alphabetic writing system, and found specific rule-based linguistic factors related to the perceived synesthetic color. However, whether similar mechanisms exist in logographic languages such as Chinese remains mostly unknown. We manipulated four linguistic factors (orthographic, phonetic, semantic, and morphemic) of Chinese characters and examined how these factors influenced the color-mapping of Taiwanese grapheme-color synesthesia. Synesthetes with grapheme-color synesthesia of Chinese characters who passed the synesthesia consistency test performed a color-matching task using four sets of Chinese characters, which were used to clarify the role of different linguistic factors that could be related to the color mapping of the synesthetic color. We found that semantic relatedness and orthographic similarity (repeated semantic radicals and repeated phonetic radicals) played a significant role in synesthetic color similarity. Phonetic similarity was correlated with synesthetic color similarity only when two characters shared the same phonetic radical, and repetition of phonetic radical was also correlated with synesthetic color when the pronunciation was the same. This interaction effect suggested that the radical function of Chinese characters is involved in synesthetic color mapping. We also found that regardless of various similarity in their pronunciations, the character pairs from binding words that form a single morpheme had similar synesthetic color. While studies of English lexical synesthesia showed a rather clear correlation between the first letter/vowel and the synesthetic color of the word, we found in the current study that no single factor could exclusively determine synesthetic color mapping in Chinese. These findings indicate that the grapheme-color synesthesia of Chinese characters involves multiple levels of language processing.

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Color Mapping of Synesthesia: First-order and Second-order Mapping 2
1.2 Chinese Writing System and Language Structure 3
1.3 Synesthesia Studies on Chinese Characters 5
1.4 Spatial Pattern Analysis of Synesthetic Color Distribution 7
1.5 Goals of This Study 8
2. Method 11
2.1 Participants 11
2.2 Apparatus 12
2.3 Materials and Design 13
2.4 Procedure 15
2.5 Data analysis 16
3. Results 19
3.1 Distribution of Synesthetic Color in CIE L*a*b Color Space 19
3.2 Semantically Related Characters Without Repeated Radicals (Set1) 21
3.3 Transparent-transparent (Set 2) and Transparent-opaque (Set 3) Semantic Pairs with repeated semantic radicals 22
3.4 Homophone Pairs Without Repeated Radicals (Set 4) 23
3.5 Phonologically Related Characters with Repeated Phonetic Radicals (Set 5 and Set 6) 24
3.6 Binding Words (Set 7 and Set 8) 26
3.7 Linear Mixed Effect Model Analysis 27
3.8 Correlation Analysis 30
4. Discussion 32
4.1 Semantic Relatedness 33
4.2 Pronunciation Similarity 34
4.3 Orthographic Similarity 36
4.4 Morpheme 37
4.5 Individual Difference 38
5. Conclusion 40
6. References 41
Appendix 1. Summary Table of Color Similarity Index (CSI) for Each Synesthete 47
Appendix 2. Character Material List 48
Appendix 3. Density Plot and L-function of Each Synesthete 53

Asano, M., & Yokosawa, K. (2011). Synesthetic colors are elicited by sound quality in Japanese synesthetes. Conscious and Cognition, 20, 1816-1823. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.05.012
Asano, M., & Yokosawa, K. (2012). Synesthetic colors for Japanese late acquired graphemes. Conscious and Cognition, 21, 983-993. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.02.005
Asano, M., & Yokosawa, K. (2013). Grapheme learning and grapheme-color synesthesia: toward a comprehensive model of grapheme-color association. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 7, 757. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00757
Baddeley, A. (2008, February). Analysing spatial point patterns in R. Technical report, CSIRO, 2010. Version 4. URL https://research. csiro. au/software/r-workshop-notes.
Barnett, K. J., Feeney, J., Gormley, M., & Newell, F. N. (2009). An exploratory study of linguistic–colour associations across languages in multilingual synaesthetes. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1343-1355.
Barnett, K. J., Finucane, C., Asher, J. E., Bargary, G., Corvin, A. P., Newell, F. N., & Mitchell, K. J. (2008). Familial patterns and the origins of individual differences in synaesthesia. Cognition, 106, 871-893. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.05.003
Baron-Cohen, S., Harrison, J., Goldstein, L. H., & Wyke, M. (1993). Coloured speech perception: Is synaesthesia what happens when modularity breaks down?. Perception, 22, 419-426.
Blazej, L. J., & Cohen-Goldberg, A. M. (2016). Multicolored words: Uncovering the relationship between reading mechanisms and synesthesia. Cortex, 75, 160-179. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.11.017
Chen, H. C., & Shu, H. (2001). Lexical activation during the recognition of Chinese characters: Evidence against early phonological activation. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 511-518.
Chen, S. Y. (2000). The development of Taiwanese children''s ability to infer orthographic information from semantic and phonological information (Doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Chen, Y. C., & Yeh, S. L. (2015). Binding radicals in Chinese character recognition: Evidence from repetition blindness. Journal of Memory and Language, 78, 47-63.
Chen, Y. C., & Yeh, S. L. (2017). Examining radical position and function in Chinese character recognition using the repetition blindness paradigm. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 32, 37-54.
Chou, T. L., Chen, C. W., Wu, M. Y., & Booth, J. R. (2009). The role of inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule in semantic processing of Chinese characters. Experimental Brain Research, 198, 465-475. doi:10.1007/s00221-009-1942-y
Eagleman, D. M., Kagan, A. D., Nelson, S. S., Sagaram, D., & Sarma, A. K. (2007). A standardized test battery for the study of synesthesia. Journal of neuroscience methods, 159, 139-145. doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.07.012
Feldman, L. B., & Siok, W. W. (1999). Semantic radicals contribute to the visual identification of Chinese characters. Journal of Memory and Language, 40, 559-576.
Hamada, D., Yamamoto, H., & Saiki, J. (2017). Database of synesthetic color associations for Japanese kanji. Behavior research methods, 49, 242-257. doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0691-z
Hamada, D., Yamamoto, H., & Saiki, J. (2017). Multilevel analysis of individual differences in regularities of grapheme–color associations in synesthesia. Consciousness and cognition, 53, 122-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.05.007
Hung, W. Y., Simner, J., Shillcock, R., & Eagleman, D. M. (2014). Synaesthesia in Chinese characters: The role of radical function and position. Consciousness and cognition, 24, 38-48. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.12.009
Kadosh, R. C., & Gertner, L. (2011). Synesthesia: Gluing together time, number, and space. In Space, time and number in the brain (pp. 123-132). Academic Press.
Kang, M. J., Kim, Y., Shin, J. Y., & Kim, C. Y. (2017). Graphemes sharing phonetic features tend to induce similar synesthetic colors. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 337. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00337
Liu, I. M., Su, I. R., & Chen, S. C. (2001). The phonetic function of Chinese phonetic radicals. Kaohsiung: Kaohsiung Fu-Weng.
Mankin, J. L., Thompson, C., Branigan, H. P., & Simner, J. (2016). Processing compound words: Evidence from synaesthesia. Cognition, 150, 1-9.
Mills, C. B., Viguers, M. L., Edelson, S. K., Thomas, A. T., Simon-Dack, S. L., & Innis, J. A. (2002). The color of two alphabets for a multilingual synesthete. Perception, 31, 1371-1394. doi:10.1068/p3429
Mroczko-Wąsowicz, A., & Nikolić, D. (2014). Semantic mechanisms may be responsible for developing synesthesia. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 509.
Nikolic, D., Jurgens, U. M., Rothen, N., Meier, B., & Mroczko, A. (2011). Swimming-style synesthesia. Cortex, 47, 874-879. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2011.02.008
Perfetti, C. A., Liu, Y., & Tan, L. H. (2005). The lexical constituency model: some implications of research on Chinese for general theories of reading. Psychological review, 112, 43.
Perfetti, C. A., & Tan, L. H. (1998). The time course of graphic, phonological, and semantic activation in Chinese character identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 101-118. doi:10.1037/0278- 7393.24.1.101
Ramachandran, V. S., & Hubbard, E. M. (2001). Synaesthesia--a window into perception, thought and language. Journal of consciousness studies, 8, 3-34.
Rich, A. N., Bradshaw, J. L., & Mattingley, J. B. (2005). A systematic, large-scale study of synaesthesia: implications for the role of early experience in lexical-colour associations. Cognition, 98, 53-84. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2004.11.003
Shin, E. H., & Kim, C. Y. (2014). Both “나” and “な” are yellow: Cross-linguistic investigation in search of the determinants of synesthetic color. Neuropsychologia, 65, 25-36.
Simner, J. (2007). Beyond perception: synaesthesia as a psycholinguistic phenomenon. Trends in cognitive sciences, 11, 23-29. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.10.010
Simner, J. (2013). The “rules” of synesthesia. The Oxford Handbook of Synesthesia, 149-164.
Simner, J., Glover, L., & Mowat, A. (2006). Linguistic determinants of word colouring in grapheme-colour synaesthesia. Cortex, 42, 281-289.
Simner, J., & Haywood, S. L. (2009). Tasty non-words and neighbours: the cognitive roots of lexical-gustatory synaesthesia. Cognition, 110, 171-181. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.11.008
Simner, J., Hung, W. Y., & Shillcock, R. (2011). Synaesthesia in a logographic language: The colouring of Chinese characters and Pinyin/Bopomo spellings. Consciousness and cognition, 20, 1376-1392. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.05.006
Simner, J., Mulvenna, C., Sagiv, N., Tsakanikos, E., Witherby, S. A., Fraser, C., ... & Ward, J. (2006). Synaesthesia: The prevalence of atypical cross-modal experiences. Perception, 35, 1024-1033. doi:10.1068/p5469
Skelton, R., Ludwig, C., & Mohr, C. (2009). A novel, illustrated questionnaire to distinguish projector and associator synaesthetes. Cortex, 45, 721-729. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2008.02.006
Taft, M. (2003). Morphological representation as a correlation between form and meaning. In Reading complex words (pp. 113-137). Springer, Boston, MA.
Van Leeuwen, T. M., Dingemanse, M., Todil, B., Agameya, A., & Majid, A. (2016). Nonrandom associations of graphemes with colors in Arabic. Multisensory research, 29, 223-252.
Ward, J., & Simner, J. (2003). Lexical-gustatory synaesthesia: linguistic and conceptual factors. Cognition, 89, 237-261. doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(03)00122-7
Ward, J., Simner, J., & Auyeung, V. (2005). A comparison of lexical-gustatory and grapheme-colour synaesthesia. Cognitive neuropsychology, 22, 28-41.
Watson, M. R., Akins, K. A., & Enns, J. T. (2012). Second-order mappings in grapheme–color synesthesia. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 19, 211-217. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0208-4
Yan, M., Richter, E. M., Shu, H., & Kliegl, R. (2009). Readers of Chinese extract semantic information from parafoveal words. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 16, 561-566.
Yan, M., Zhou, W., Shu, H., & Kliegl, R. (2012). Lexical and sublexical semantic preview benefits in Chinese reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 1069.
Yang, Y. H., Zhou, J., Li, K. A., Hung, T., Pegna, A. J., & Yeh, S. L. (2017). Opposite ERP effects for conscious and unconscious semantic processing under continuous flash suppression. Consciousness and cognition, 54, 114-128.
Yang, Y. H., & Yeh, S. L. (2011). Accessing the meaning of invisible words. Consciousness and cognition, 20, 223-233. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.07.005
Yeh, S. L., He, S., & Cavanagh, P. (2012). Semantic priming from crowded words. Psychological science, 23, 608-616.
Yeh, S. L., & Li, J. L. (2002). Role of structure and component in judgments of visual similarity of Chinese characters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 933. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.28.4.933
Yeh, S. L., & Li, J. L. (2004). Sublexical processing in visual recognition of Chinese characters: Evidence from repetition blindness for subcharacter components. Brain and Language, 88, 47-53.
Zhang, J. X., Xiao, Z., & Weng, X. (2012). Neural evidence for direct meaning access from orthography in Chinese word reading. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 84, 240-245.
Zhou, J., Lee, C. L., & Yeh, S. L. (2016). Word meanings survive visual crowding: evidence from ERPs. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31, 1167-1177.
Zhou, X., & Marslen-Wilson, W. (1999). The nature of sublexical processing in reading Chinese characters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 819.